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研究资料 · 2026 年 10 月 29 日

计算机历史博物馆:技术脉络与展品研究

围绕展品解释计算机怎样从计算器发展为通用、联网与随身的工具。每个专题说明当时的问题、工作原理、后续变化与局限。

59 个详解专题31 幅高清照片资料核对:2026-10-29

先说结论

官方 31 站导览适合参观重点回顾。理解计算机史,还需要连接存储程序、半导体、软件工具与网络协议。本页把原有展项扩为 59 个详解专题,并附公开在线展览的条目索引。

索引含照片、文献与其他记录,不能把条目数量当作当前在展实物数量。

历史主线与阅读地图

这条主线是理解工具,不能当作所有国家、公司和研究团队都依次经过的单一路线。模拟计算、数字计算、个人计算和共享服务曾长期并存。

变化原有负担新的能力关联专题
把计算状态放到器具中人需要记住中间结果,或反复查算。状态可见,某些步骤可以机械化。算盘、Babbage 的差分机与分析机
把程序保存为编码更换任务需要插线或重设设备。同一硬件装入不同程序。ENIAC、存储程序
缩小并集成电子器件装配、连线、供电与维护成本增加。更多电路进入更小系统。晶体管与电子开关、集成电路、平面工艺与 MOS、微处理器与 Intel 4004
提高软件与数据组织能力程序难写,数据布局与应用紧密绑定。表达任务、共享资源、按逻辑关系查询。汇编、编译器与高级语言、分时、操作系统与 Unix、关系数据库与 SQL
让人直接使用计算机操作需要专门知识,结果反馈慢。图形操作、个人应用与即时交互。Xerox Alto、Apple II、VisiCalc 与电子表格
让网络与信息系统相接设备、网络和文档彼此分散。跨网传递、链接发布与搜索。ARPANET 的 IMP、TCP/IP 与网络互联、World Wide Web 与浏览器
让计算随身与按需获得设备固定,资源需要提前采购。移动工作与网络服务。PalmPilot、手机、掌上电脑与移动互联网、分布式服务与云计算
用模型处理更多实际任务像素、测量和复杂变化难以直接处理。图形、模拟、协作与数据学习。犹他茶壶、GPU 与深度学习计算、汽车碰撞模拟:数值模型与验证

技术主线可从存储程序、晶体管、集成电路、编译器、操作系统、数据库和网络协议开始。产品与行业阅读可重点比较 Apple II、VisiCalc、IBM PC、PalmPilot 与 Minitel;它们解释了技术如何进入具体任务和市场。

共 59 个专题;可按名称或正文检索。

计算成为可操作的工具

人们先把数值与步骤放到外部器具中。算盘帮助人保留运算状态;机械装置把某种模型固定下来;通用计算理论则开始讨论同一台机器能处理怎样的任务。

从人执行规则,到机器表达规则。

算盘

馆内的算盘展柜。Don DeBold · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 2.0 · 1920 × 1079 像素 · 点按放大

当时要解决的问题

商人需要处理账目,工匠需要计算数量。口算容易丢失中间结果。写下每一步又需要纸笔和时间。算盘把数字的位置留在一个可以反复使用的器具上。

工作原理

每一档代表一个数位,珠子的位置表示数值。操作者按规则拨珠、进位和退位。例如个位从 9 加到 10 时,需要清空个位并移动十位的珠子。算盘保留运算状态,操作顺序由人决定。[9]

后续改变

计算开始有了可见、可检查的外部状态。它让熟练使用者快速完成商业运算,也说明“计算工具”和“自动执行程序”之间有一段距离。

局限与辨别

算盘不会自行读取指令、选择分支或纠正操作。照片中的实物也不能用来证明算盘的最早发明年代。阅读时应关注位值和进位机制。

继续连接:Babbage 的差分机与分析机、何乐礼人口普查制表系统。

安提基特拉机械

安提基特拉机械的现代重建模型,雅典国家考古博物馆;参考图。Giovanni Dall'Orto . · Wikimedia Commons · Attribution · 1856 × 2400 像素 · 点按放大

当时要解决的问题

历法与天象具有复杂的重复周期。使用者需要把某个日期与月相、日月运动及食的周期联系起来,手工查算需要专门知识。

工作原理

手柄带动齿轮,齿数比例把一种转动周期换成另一种周期。多个齿轮组共同驱动表盘。它把一套天文模型固定在机械关系中,转动输入便能读取对应结果。[10]

后续改变

这件装置说明,预测可以依靠模型的物理运行。现代计算机也运行模型,但模型如今通常保存在可修改的软件中。二者的共同点是把现实关系转换成可计算的表示。

局限与辨别

原件以腐蚀碎片存世,完整外形与部分功能依赖研究和重建。本页照片展示现代模型,不能当作古代原件。它也没有现代计算机那样的通用指令系统。

继续连接:Nordsieck 微分分析机、Babbage 的差分机与分析机。

Babbage 的差分机与分析机

当时要解决的问题

航海、天文和工程依赖数学表。人工计算和排版环节容易引入差错。Babbage 希望把计算与输出自动化,减少这些重复劳动。

工作原理

差分机针对特定函数表,利用有限差分把计算转换为重复加法。分析机则提出更通用的结构,包括运算部件、保存中间结果的部件和打孔卡控制。二者解决的问题范围不同。[11][12]

后续改变

这组设计让自动计算、指令顺序和通用机器的构想变得具体。Ada Lovelace 的笔记也讨论了计算机器的用途,超出了单次算术任务。

局限与辨别

Babbage 在世时没有完成这些完整系统。CHM 曾展出的大型差分机是后世按图建造的机器,相关特展已于 2016 年结束。本页将其列作历史背景,不声称它现在仍在馆内展出。

nn 的平方相邻平方的差
001
113
245
397
4169

教学示例:平方数的一阶差每次增加 2。保存当前值与差值,重复加法就能生成后续平方数。这解释有限差分的思路,不是馆藏机器的完整操作说明。

继续连接:算盘、通用计算与布尔逻辑、存储程序。

通用计算与布尔逻辑

当时要解决的问题

通用机器的设计需要回答两类问题:哪些任务能按明确步骤计算?电路怎样表达和组合这些步骤?计算理论与逻辑电路分别处理这些问题。

工作原理

Turing 用读写纸带的抽象机器描述计算,并讨论能模拟其他机器的通用机器。Shannon 把布尔代数用于继电器电路。串联和并联的开关关系,可以对应“与”“或”等逻辑操作。[13][14][15]

后续改变

通用计算说明,同一类机器可以因程序不同而执行不同任务。布尔逻辑让工程师用一致的方法设计和检查开关电路,后来可由电子管或晶体管实现。

局限与辨别

抽象机器不是当时制造的一台实物。可计算也不等于计算得快,计算理论还说明某些问题不存在一般解法。不要把 Turing 的理论、Shannon 的电路工作和存储程序的工程实现合成一次发明。

逻辑与物理器件,原理示意
  1. 表示

    用 0 与 1 表示两个状态

  2. 组合

    逻辑门按规则组合输入

  3. 实现

    继电器、电子管或晶体管执行切换

表示、逻辑和物理实现可以分别研究。

继续连接:ENIAC、存储程序、晶体管与电子开关。

数据处理与通用电子计算

计算机需要处理的工作包括算术,也包括记录的读取、分类、更新和输出。电子化提高运算速度,存储程序减少更换任务的准备工作,编程工具再降低表达任务的负担。

运算速度、任务切换与软件生产,是不同的问题。

何乐礼人口普查制表系统

何乐礼人口普查制表机。Jennifer · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 2.0 · 1600 × 1200 像素 · 点按放大

当时要解决的问题

人口增加后,逐张阅读问卷、分类和加总变得困难。这里的负担包括搬运与整理记录,单纯提高算术速度并不足够。

工作原理

工作人员把人的属性编码为卡片上的孔。电气触点检测孔的位置,驱动相应计数器。更换分类条件、重新整理卡片,再运行一次,就能得到另一种统计结果。卡片使数据与机器操作分离。[16]

后续改变

同一批记录可以反复分类和汇总。这条路线进入保险、铁路和企业管理。何乐礼的商业事业后来进入形成 IBM 的公司体系。计算对象由算式扩展到组织保存的记录。

局限与辨别

机器只认识事先规定的编码。问卷错误、打孔错误和分类标准仍会影响结果。数据结构、输入质量与统计口径,从一开始就是系统的一部分。

继续连接:UNIVAC I、IBM 1401 与业务数据处理、关系数据库与 SQL。

Nordsieck 微分分析机

Nordsieck 微分分析机。Tomwsulcer · Wikimedia Commons · CC0 · 1920 × 1196 像素 · 点按放大

当时要解决的问题

弹道、振动等问题包含随时间变化的量。工程师需要求解微分方程。早期数字计算资源昂贵,编写数值程序也需要时间。

工作原理

盘轮积分器把转动关系转换为积分结果。Nordsieck 使用电气连接在部件间传递运动信息,降低了机械长轴连接的复杂程度。调整连接和参数,相当于把一组方程装配到机器上。[17][18]

后续改变

它提供了一条经济的建模路线,也显示计算机史并非所有设备都沿同一种结构前进。工程师可以借助物理过程求解问题,也可以把变量离散成数字来运算。

局限与辨别

部件误差、摩擦和标定会影响精度。更换问题仍需要重设机器。数字计算机后来在可编程性和规模上取得优势。模拟方法仍有自己的适用领域。

继续连接:安提基特拉机械、ENIAC、汽车碰撞模拟:数值模型与验证。

ENIAC

ENIAC 的电路柜。Ik T from Kanagawa, Japan · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 2.0 · 1920 × 1440 像素 · 点按放大

当时要解决的问题

弹道研究需要大量重复数值计算。人工计算队伍和机械计算器难以满足速度要求。电子器件让机器能以更高速度完成加法和相关操作。

工作原理

ENIAC 使用电子真空管,并以十进制累加器保存数值。早期程序由插线和开关设置。工程师需要把计算步骤分配给不同单元,再协调执行顺序。早期 ENIAC 的编程方式与今天加载程序不同。[19][20]

后续改变

它证明大型电子数字系统能完成多种数值任务。参与编程的女性数学工作者把方程转换为实际机器步骤。编程由此成为需要专门技能的工作。

局限与辨别

高速运算并没有消除重新布线与检查程序的负担。理解它的关键是把“电子化”与“存储程序”分开:前者提高运算速度,后者改变准备和切换任务的方式。

继续连接:存储程序、汇编、编译器与高级语言。

存储程序

当时要解决的问题

电子运算已经很快,但重新插线和调整开关仍然耗时。机器需要一种便于保存、装入和更改指令的方法。

工作原理

指令被编码成数字并保存在存储器中。处理器读取指令、解释操作、取得数据并执行,再决定下一条指令的位置。分支让执行顺序依据条件改变,循环让一组步骤反复运行。[21][22]

后续改变

硬件可以持续使用,任务通过装入不同程序来改变。软件工具、操作系统和可分发的应用都有了工程基础。Manchester Baby 的实验与后来提供常规计算服务的机器,是不同发展阶段。

局限与辨别

这一结构由多个团队逐步形成,不能只归功于某个人。现代机器也不总把指令和数据放在完全相同的物理存储中。共同点在于指令可以作为可读取的编码保存。

存储程序的执行,原理示意
  1. 取指

    从存储器读入下一条指令

  2. 执行

    取得数据,完成相应操作

  3. 决定下一步

    顺序前进,或按条件跳转

这张图解释通用执行循环,没有按某台机器的电路比例绘制。

继续连接:ENIAC、磁芯存储器、汇编、编译器与高级语言。

UNIVAC I

UNIVAC I 操作控制台。The wub · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · 1920 × 1280 像素 · 点按放大

当时要解决的问题

政府与企业需要反复处理统计和业务记录。实验室里能运行的机器,还需要变成客户可以买到、维护并纳入日常工作的系统。

工作原理

UNIVAC I 执行存储程序,并使用磁带处理记录。它的早期主存采用水银延迟线:信息转换为声波,在介质内循环。控制台让操作者启动、停止和检查运行。[23][24]

后续改变

它把通用电子计算带入政府与商业采购。1952 年的美国总统选举预测让公众看见计算机的统计用途。产品、维护和客户信任也开始影响技术的传播。

局限与辨别

它价格昂贵,需要专门设施和人员。人口普查局并未用它处理当年全部人口计数,馆方说明其早期用途包括较小的企业相关普查。不要把一次演示等同于全部生产流程。

继续连接:IBM 1401 与业务数据处理、IBM System/360。

汇编、编译器与高级语言

当时要解决的问题

用机器指令逐条表达问题既慢又容易出错。程序变大后,编写与检查逐渐成为主要成本。

工作原理

汇编语言用名称代替操作码和地址数字。高级语言进一步用表达式、循环和过程描述工作,编译器把这些描述转换为机器可执行的指令。一个源代码表达式可以对应许多条机器指令。[25][26]

后续改变

FORTRAN 服务科学计算,COBOL 发展于商业数据处理需求。程序员开始以更接近任务的方式表达问题。语言、编译器、库和开发工具共同提高软件生产能力。

局限与辨别

高级语言没有消除错误,也没有让程序自动适用于所有硬件。编译器、数据类型和运行环境仍会影响结果。源代码可移植与二进制程序兼容,需要分别判断。

从程序到执行,原理示意
  1. 源代码

    描述表达式、循环与过程

  2. 编译工具

    转换并组织机器指令

  3. 运行环境

    装入程序,管理实际执行

不同工具和系统可以采用不同的实现方式。

继续连接:IBM System/360、分时、操作系统与 Unix、关系数据库与 SQL。

IBM 1401 与业务数据处理

当时要解决的问题

企业已经使用打孔卡处理工资、账单和库存。它们需要把许多固定功能的设备操作,变成更灵活、可修改的业务流程。

工作原理

1401 把读卡、处理、磁带和打印连接成可编程系统。程序可以读取一批记录,执行工资或账单规则,再产生新的记录和纸质报告。周边设备的速度与操作方式会直接影响整项工作的效率。[27][5]

后续改变

它让更多企业进入电子数据处理。馆方修复演示让观众看到输入、运算和输出连续发生。

局限与辨别

批处理并不等于即时交互。业务规则正确、输入可靠和工作人员能处理异常,仍然是系统运转的条件。演示开放信息应以馆方当前安排为准。

继续连接:何乐礼人口普查制表系统、UNIVAC I、IBM System/360。

器件、芯片与制造能力

程序需要实际电路执行。晶体管改变单个开关的条件,集成电路改变制造与连接的方式,微处理器把处理器功能集成到芯片。产业组织与制造经济也影响这些技术怎样传播。

从单个开关,发展到可大量制造的复杂电路。

晶体管与电子开关

当时要解决的问题

真空管能够高速切换,却需要较多空间和电力,也会产生热。计算机增加器件时,供电、可靠性和维护负担随之增长。

工作原理

晶体管利用半导体中的电流控制。把它设计成开关,可以表示逻辑状态。把许多开关连接起来,可以形成逻辑门和存储电路。最早的点接触结构与后来的晶体管类型不同。[28][29]

后续改变

更小、耗电更低的开关,让更多电路进入同一系统。晶体管化的计算机逐步替代许多电子管设计,也为便携设备和高密度电路提供了条件。

局限与辨别

早期晶体管计算机仍然占据较大空间。器件缩小以后,怎样制造、连接和封装大量器件又成为主要问题。下一步需要研究集成电路和制造工艺。

继续连接:通用计算与布尔逻辑、集成电路、平面工艺与 MOS、摩尔定律。

集成电路、平面工艺与 MOS

当时要解决的问题

离散晶体管需要逐个制造、安装和连线。器件越多,接点、装配成本和故障机会越多。仅缩小单个器件还不够。

工作原理

集成电路把多个器件及其连接制造在一块半导体材料上。平面工艺帮助制造和保护器件结构。MOS 晶体管利用栅极电场控制导电通道,逐步成为高密度数字电路的重要基础。[30][31]

后续改变

集成把大量手工装配转成可重复的制造步骤。处理器、存储和其他功能能够在更少的芯片中完成,系统成本与体积随之变化。

局限与辨别

早期 MOS 面临稳定性等制造问题,优势并未立即转成市场成功。今天的高集成度也依赖设计工具、良率、封装与制造投资,不能只用晶体管尺寸解释。

制造集成的层次,原理示意
  1. 晶体管

    可用于放大或切换的器件

  2. 集成电路

    同一芯片上制造多个器件与连接

  3. 微处理器

    把处理器功能集成到芯片

完整计算机还需要存储、接口、供电与软件。

继续连接:晶体管与电子开关、磁芯存储器、微处理器与 Intel 4004。

微处理器与 Intel 4004

当时要解决的问题

制造商希望减少为每种产品单独设计控制电路的成本。随着集成能力增加,把处理器功能放到少数甚至一块芯片上变得可行。

工作原理

微处理器读取并执行指令。外部存储与输入输出部件让它构成完整系统。4004 属于早期商业单芯片处理器。此前也存在多芯片处理器与其他集成尝试。[32][33]

后续改变

更换程序就能让相近硬件承担不同控制任务。随着性能和配套部件发展,个人计算机、仪器和大量嵌入式设备开始采用这条路线。

局限与辨别

处理器芯片不等于完整计算机。它还需要存储、供电、接口与软件。“第一款微处理器”的说法也取决于是否限定单芯片、通用性及商业可购买条件。

继续连接:存储程序、Apple I、IBM PC。

摩尔定律

馆内的摩尔定律展板。Ik T from Kanagawa, Japan · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 2.0 · 1920 × 1440 像素 · 点按放大

当时要解决的问题

集成电路增加元件后,设计者需要判断未来芯片的能力与成本。企业还需要安排制造、设计工具和产品投资。

工作原理

Gordon Moore 从早期集成电路的数据中观察到元件数量快速增加。预测后来调整为大致每两年翻倍。制造工艺、良率和经济条件共同决定这种增长能否延续。[34]

后续改变

这项观察成为半导体行业规划的参照。更多晶体管可以用于处理器、存储和其他电路,也让软件开发者不断获得新的硬件能力。

局限与辨别

晶体管数量增加,不等于每个程序的速度按同样比例增长。功耗、连线和制造成本会限制设计。摩尔定律描述产业发展经验,不能代替对具体芯片的分析。

继续连接:晶体管与电子开关、集成电路、平面工艺与 MOS、微处理器与 Intel 4004。

Walker’s Wagon Wheel 酒馆车轮

酒馆车轮与 Walker’s Wagon Wheel 酒馆历史照片。Mark Richards / Computer History Museum;Carolyn Caddes / Stanford University Libraries · CHM · 版权归原权利人 · 1968 × 985 像素 · 点按放大

当时要解决的问题

半导体产业需要工程经验、人才和商业机会的交流。公司之间的正式文件与会议之外,员工也在日常社交中交换信息。

工作原理

这只车轮曾是 Mountain View 的 Walker’s Wagon Wheel 酒馆装饰。Fairchild Semiconductor 及其他公司的员工在那里聚会、招聘和讨论技术。馆方还保存了酒馆柜台的一部分。[35]

后续改变

它为研究硅谷的地域产业网络提供了具体对象。芯片制造的历史包括技术方案,也包括公司衍生、人员流动和经验传播。

局限与辨别

车轮没有计算功能,不能作为某项技术突破的代表。把它放入本章,是为了说明产业组织与技术发展的关系。本页照片左侧是车轮,右侧是酒馆历史照片。

继续连接:晶体管与电子开关、微处理器与 Intel 4004。

主存、系统与可靠运行

当机器开始服务企业、实验室和飞行器,问题就扩展到存储、输入输出、共享和时间要求。更快的处理器不能独自解决这些系统问题。

从完成计算,到持续、可靠地提供计算服务。

Norden 轰炸瞄准器

Norden 轰炸瞄准器。Don DeBold from San Jose, CA, USA · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 2.0 · 1920 × 1440 像素 · 点按放大

当时要解决的问题

飞机向前飞行时,炸弹还会继续水平移动,并受风和空气阻力影响。投弹者需要把这些变量变成一个释放时刻。

工作原理

瞄准器把光学观测、稳定机构和机械模拟计算结合起来。操作者跟踪目标并输入条件,装置依据运动关系计算瞄准。相关系统还与飞机的自动驾驶装置配合。[36]

后续改变

它展示了“计算结果直接影响现实动作”的早期系统。计算器、传感器和控制机构必须配合,才能把数学结果转成投弹操作。

局限与辨别

实战中的云层、烟雾、风和机组条件都会限制准确度。计算预期落点与投放后继续修正飞行路径,是不同的控制任务。

继续连接:Nordsieck 微分分析机、Apollo 制导计算与实时软件。

SAGE 防空系统

SAGE 控制台与光笔。Tomwsulcer · Wikimedia Commons · CC0 · 1920 × 1339 像素 · 点按放大

当时要解决的问题

防空人员面对分散的雷达数据和不断移动的目标。等一批数据全部处理完再打印报告,无法满足指挥工作的时间要求。

工作原理

通信线路把雷达报告送到大型计算机。系统持续更新目标轨迹,操作员通过显示器和光笔选择信息、参与判断。传感器、计算、界面和指挥行动共同构成整个系统。[37][38]

后续改变

SAGE 把交互式显示和实时数据处理应用到大规模组织中。它影响了工程训练、联网经验和人机交互,也说明计算机可以嵌入一个持续运行的服务体系。

局限与辨别

它是复杂且昂贵的防御系统。显示目标与判断威胁仍需要模型和人员。系统设计也受当时的军事假设限制。技术规模本身不能证明战略目标一定实现。

继续连接:Apollo 制导计算与实时软件、ARPANET 的 IMP。

Apollo 制导计算与实时软件

当时要解决的问题

航天器需要在重量、供电和可靠性限制下处理导航与控制。计算不仅要得出结果,还必须在相关动作需要之前完成。

工作原理

机载计算机接收状态与测量,运行导航和控制程序,再通过接口影响飞行。固定程序存储与可改写工作存储承担不同职责。软件还需要安排任务优先级并处理异常。[39][40]

后续改变

它把计算机嵌入对现实时间和可靠性要求很高的环境。工程师需要同时考虑器件、软件、操作程序和地面支持,计算机系统工程由此具有明确的实物例子。

局限与辨别

登月成功不能简化为一台计算机或一段程序的功劳。本页借助它解释实时与可靠性,不把导航软件等同于现代通用操作系统。

继续连接:SAGE 防空系统、磁芯存储器、汇编、编译器与高级语言。

磁芯存储器

磁芯存储器的穿线结构。Carlo Nardone from Roma, Italy · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 2.0 · 1920 × 1440 像素 · 点按放大

当时要解决的问题

处理器需要快速、可靠地保存正在使用的数据。早期存储技术存在速度、稳定性和维护问题。

工作原理

小磁环沿两个方向磁化,分别表示一个二进制位。导线提供选择和读写信号。许多系统的读取会改变原状态,因此还需要把读出的值写回。一个完整主存由大量磁环和控制电路组成。[41][42]

后续改变

磁芯让实用的随机访问主存成为常见部件,并能在断电后保留磁化状态。它也依赖细致的制造劳动:工人需要把细导线穿过微小磁环。

局限与辨别

容量扩大意味着更多磁环、导线与装配工作。半导体存储后来降低了单位容量成本。磁芯主存主要服务运算中的数据,磁盘则承担更大的持久记录。

继续连接:存储程序、IBM 350 RAMAC 磁盘、集成电路、平面工艺与 MOS。

IBM 350 RAMAC 磁盘

IBM 350 RAMAC 的磁盘机构。ArnoldReinhold · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · 1800 × 2400 像素 · 点按放大

当时要解决的问题

磁带适合连续读写。要找到某条客户记录,设备通常需要越过前面的数据。日常业务查询需要更灵活的访问方式。

工作原理

旋转盘面涂有磁性材料,读写磁头移动到指定位置附近。机器不必从卷头依次经过所有记录。机械寻道与盘片旋转仍然耗时,但访问顺序可以由程序选择。[43][44]

后续改变

磁盘使频繁查询和更新记录更实用。它与数据库共同支持库存、账户等业务。硬件提供访问能力,软件决定记录如何组织、检索与更新。

局限与辨别

“随机访问”表示能够选择地址,并不表示每次访问耗时相同或没有机械运动。照片展示磁盘机构。主存、磁盘与数据库是不同层次的东西。

继续连接:磁芯存储器、关系数据库与 SQL。

IBM System/360

IBM System/360 Model 30。Alexey Komarov · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · 1920 × 1280 像素 · 点按放大

当时要解决的问题

客户更换计算机时,常常需要重写程序和重新训练人员。软件迁移成本会减少硬件升级的收益。

工作原理

System/360 用共同的体系结构覆盖多个性能档次。对程序可见的指令与数据表示保持一致,内部硬件实现可以不同。通道等机制让处理器与输入输出设备配合工作。[45][46]

后续改变

客户能够在同一产品家族内升级,并保留较多软件投资。兼容性使计算机从单台设备变成长期产品体系,也促进了应用与工具的积累。

局限与辨别

统一体系结构没有让所有机器、操作系统和外设完全相同。兼容承诺也会约束后续设计。理解它时,应关注“哪些约定保持稳定”,而不只是机柜的大小。

继续连接:汇编、编译器与高级语言、分时、操作系统与 Unix、IBM PC。

分时、操作系统与 Unix

当时要解决的问题

昂贵的计算机需要服务多个使用者和多个程序。系统必须分配处理时间,管理文件与设备,并减少一个任务对其他任务的干扰。

工作原理

分时系统在任务之间快速切换,让终端用户获得交互感。操作系统保存和恢复任务状态,并提供文件和设备服务。Unix 后来以较一致的文件与工具约定,支持把小程序组合成更大的工作。[47][48]

后续改变

程序不必每次从头处理所有硬件细节。Unix 的发展还连接到 C 语言、可移植软件、大学使用与后来的 BSD 和 Linux 等系统传统。

局限与辨别

快速切换不表示每个任务都同时占用处理器。操作系统也不会自动保证安全或正确。源码可得、接口标准和软件许可,是相关但不同的问题。

继续连接:汇编、编译器与高级语言、IBM System/360、分布式服务与云计算。

关系数据库与 SQL

当时要解决的问题

硬盘能保存许多记录,但业务程序仍需要知道怎样找到和组合它们。存储结构改变后,依赖原结构的程序需要相应调整。

工作原理

关系模型用表及表之间的关系描述数据。SQL 声明需要怎样的结果,数据库选择访问路径并执行。事务、约束和恢复机制进一步帮助多个使用者可靠更新数据。[49][50][51]

后续改变

应用与底层存储组织之间有了更明确的分工。客户与订单可以分别保存,再按共同字段关联。查询方式可以变化,而不必重写全部记录的物理布局。

局限与辨别

表结构本身不会保证数据正确。索引、事务边界、权限和约束仍需要设计。关系数据库也只是多种数据管理方法之一,不能把“有表格”当作完整数据库能力。

查询与存储的分工,原理示意
  1. 用户查询

    声明需要哪些记录与字段

  2. 数据库

    选择访问方式并维护数据规则

  3. 存储设备

    读写实际保存的数据

SQL、数据库和磁盘分别处于不同层次。

继续连接:何乐礼人口普查制表系统、IBM 350 RAMAC 磁盘、分布式服务与云计算。

PDP-1 与 Spacewar!

当时要解决的问题

批处理系统让用户提交任务后等待结果。研究者和爱好者希望直接控制机器,并根据即时反馈不断调整程序。

工作原理

PDP-1 的交互显示和输入设备,让程序在运行中回应用户。Spacewar! 把运动计算、显示刷新和操作者输入连接起来,形成持续的交互循环。[5][52]

后续改变

计算机开始成为可以边操作边探索的媒介。游戏、图形和音乐实验扩大了使用方式,也帮助形成重视动手修改软件的社群。

局限与辨别

它仍是机构设备,不能等同于大众个人电脑。馆方运行修复系统提供了观察原有软件与外设配合的机会,演示安排需要查看馆方当前信息。

继续连接:DEC PDP-8、Pong 原型机、Xerox Alto。

DEC PDP-8

DEC PDP-8 小型机。Todd Dailey · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 2.0 · 1920 × 1276 像素 · 点按放大

当时要解决的问题

大学实验室与工厂常常需要自己的控制和数据处理设备。大型机采购昂贵,排队使用远程计算中心也不适合许多现场任务。

工作原理

PDP-8 用较简单的处理器结构降低系统成本。用户把仪器、终端和其他设备接入计算机,再用程序采集数据或控制操作。它的能力有限,但足以承担明确的小型任务。[53]

后续改变

计算资源进入了更多具体工作现场。小型机也给软件公司和设备厂商提供了市场:计算机可以成为另一种产品内部的部件。

局限与辨别

小型机仍需要会操作和编程的人,也不是后来那种可直接带回家的个人电脑。其历史位置主要在专用工作现场和交互式使用的普及。

继续连接:PDP-1 与 Spacewar!、Honeywell 厨房计算机、分时、操作系统与 Unix。

Cray-1

Cray-1A 超级计算机。The wub · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · 1800 × 2400 像素 · 点按放大

当时要解决的问题

气象、流体和物理模型需要对大批数字重复运算。除了提高时钟速度,还需要减少重复取指和数据搬运的负担。

工作原理

向量指令描述一组相似的数据操作。例如两组数字逐项相加,向量单元可以连续处理这些元素。紧凑的弧形布局缩短连线。散热结构支持密集电子部件稳定工作。[54]

后续改变

Cray-1 把计算体系结构与机电工程同时用于提高速度。它推动科学软件围绕向量计算调整,也让超级计算成为专门的产品和研究工具。

局限与辨别

只有适合成组处理的工作才能充分获益。分支多、访问分散的程序仍受限制。现代 GPU 也利用大量规则运算,但其执行结构与 Cray-1 的向量处理并不相同。

继续连接:犹他茶壶、GPU 与深度学习计算、汽车碰撞模拟:数值模型与验证。

交互界面与个人计算

个人计算需要可获得的硬件,也需要有用的软件、容易操作的界面和可以承担的成本。Alto、Apple II 与 IBM PC 分别展示了研究组合、产品整合和兼容生态。

任务、界面与软件供给,共同决定谁能使用计算机。

恩格尔巴特鼠标

恩格尔巴特鼠标原型的复制品。Michael Hicks from Saint Paul, MN, USA · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 2.0 · 1920 × 1280 像素 · 点按放大

当时要解决的问题

在屏幕上选择某个位置,需要把人的动作变成坐标。用键盘逐次移动光标,常常不适合选择图形或编辑屏幕对象。

工作原理

早期鼠标用相互垂直的滚轮测量两个方向的移动,再把移动转换为光标位置。按钮负责选择或确认。鼠标需要显示、软件和任务设计配合,才能形成完整的操作方式。[55]

后续改变

恩格尔巴特团队的研究还包括超文本、协作和知识工作。鼠标是这套系统中容易看见的部件。其长期影响来自软件如何利用指向动作。

局限与辨别

本页照片是原型的复制品。早期鼠标和今天的光学鼠标采用不同的测量机制。外形相近不代表内部技术相同。

继续连接:Xerox Alto、World Wide Web 与浏览器。

Xerox Alto

Xerox Alto I 工作站。The wub · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · 1920 × 1536 像素 · 点按放大

当时要解决的问题

文本命令和纸卡输入需要用户记住系统的规则。要让更多人写作、绘图和处理文件,需要更直接的反馈,也需要计算机之间共享成果。

工作原理

Alto 把位图显示、鼠标、键盘、可更换磁盘和 Ethernet 连接放在一台个人工作站上。软件可把页面、文字和图形显示在屏幕上,并与打印结果对应。[56][57]

后续改变

它把多种已有或正在发展的想法组合成可实际研究的办公系统。人们可以围绕文档与图形工作,个人计算也开始与联网、打印结合。

局限与辨别

Alto 是研究系统,没有成为大众零售产品。现代桌面界面由多个团队继续发展,不能把所有窗口、图标和菜单的发明都归于同一台机器。

继续连接:恩格尔巴特鼠标、Ethernet 与局域网、IBM PC。

Honeywell 厨房计算机

Honeywell 316 厨房计算机。Federico Builes · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 2.0 · 1920 × 1434 像素 · 点按放大

当时要解决的问题

个人计算机尚未普及时,厂商需要解释普通家庭为何需要一台计算机。保存食谱成为一个容易宣传的用途。

工作原理

外壳内是一台 Honeywell 316 小型机。控制台仍采用二进制开关和指示灯。用户必须掌握专门操作。外形、宣传用途和实际输入方式之间存在明显距离。[58]

后续改变

这件展品适合研究早期家用计算的产品想象。它让“硬件可以完成任务”与“普通人能轻松完成任务”的差别变得具体。

局限与辨别

馆方记载这种商品没有售出。它不应承担与微处理器或存储程序同等的技术地位。更合适的读法,是检查用户、任务、界面和价格是否相互匹配。

继续连接:Xerox Alto、Apple II、PalmPilot。

Apple I

Apple I 电路板。Michael Hicks from Saint Paul, MN, USA · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 2.0 · 1920 × 1280 像素 · 点按放大

当时要解决的问题

微处理器让个人有机会拥有计算机,但组装处理器、内存和显示电路仍需要大量电子技能。爱好者希望更快得到能输入程序的机器。

工作原理

Apple I 提供组装好的电路板,并把连接键盘与显示器的工作简化。用户仍需准备电源、键盘和显示设备。它在完整家用产品之前,减少了一部分硬件装配负担。[59][60]

后续改变

它把爱好者技术、零售渠道和小型公司创业连接起来,也是 Apple 的早期产品。应把它放在 Homebrew Computer Club 等社群及其他微型机共同发展的环境中。

局限与辨别

它不是第一台个人计算机,也没有独自创造个人计算市场。对普通家庭而言,外壳、软件、存储和支持仍然重要,这些问题在后续产品中继续处理。

继续连接:微处理器与 Intel 4004、Apple II。

Apple II

Apple II 个人计算机。The wub · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · 1920 × 1280 像素 · 点按放大

当时要解决的问题

个人购买计算机后,需要能够日常使用的输入、显示、存储和软件。只有一块可运行的电路板,仍不足以让多数家庭与小企业接受它。

工作原理

Apple II 把键盘、处理器和显示能力装入完整机身,并提供扩展槽。用户可以添加接口、磁盘设备和软件。彩色图形与相对完整的产品形态扩大了用途。[61]

后续改变

教育、游戏和商业软件共同推动采用。VisiCalc 电子表格让小企业看到反复修改预算和预测的实际收益。应用开始反过来决定硬件采购。

局限与辨别

它的成功依赖多个部件和软件的配合,不能只归因于外观或某个电路。把“能运行程序”变成“有必要买一台”,通常需要具体任务。

继续连接:VisiCalc 与电子表格、IBM PC。

VisiCalc 与电子表格

当时要解决的问题

预算与经营预测通常包含许多相互依赖的数值。修改销售假设后,需要重新计算相关结果。纸张与计算器使反复试算很费力。

工作原理

用户在单元格中填写数字和公式。程序记录单元格之间的引用关系,输入改变后重新计算相关结果。屏幕让人直接检查行列与依赖关系。[61][62]

后续改变

VisiCalc 给个人计算机提供了明确的商业用途。许多用户购买硬件,是为了完成一个实际工作,而非为了拥有计算能力本身。

局限与辨别

电子表格会忠实执行错误公式。它降低试算成本,却不会检查经营假设是否合理。个人软件的影响需要同时从任务、使用门槛和错误后果来理解。

继续连接:Apple II、关系数据库与 SQL、Photoshop:像素、图层与选择。

IBM PC

IBM PC 个人计算机。The wub · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · 1920 × 1200 像素 · 点按放大

当时要解决的问题

企业需要采购、维护和扩展个人计算设备。市场上多种不兼容机器,使软件和外设投资存在风险。IBM 的参与改变了企业客户的选择环境。

工作原理

IBM 使用外部供应的处理器和操作系统,并发布较完整的技术资料。扩展卡可以接入系统。后来厂商通过兼容设计与独立 BIOS 实现,制造运行相同软件的机器。[63]

后续改变

大量兼容机、软件与外设形成共同市场。客户可以在厂商之间选择,同时保留较多程序与使用经验,个人电脑由此进入更大范围的办公采购。

局限与辨别

“开放”不表示所有部件都免费或没有法律约束。BIOS、软件授权和兼容测试仍然重要。今天的 PC 也经历了长期演化,并非原始 IBM PC 的简单复制。

继续连接:IBM System/360、分时、操作系统与 Unix、VisiCalc 与电子表格。

图形、游戏与人工智能

当屏幕可以持续回应操作,计算机开始成为创作、娱乐和研究智能行为的媒介。这些任务推动了图形算法、专用硬件和新的计算方法。

从处理数字,到生成图像、互动和行动。

Shakey 机器人

SRI Shakey 机器人。The wub · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · 1600 × 2400 像素 · 点按放大

当时要解决的问题

让机器人完成任务,需要把摄像机看到的东西、对环境的描述和运动控制连接起来。仅有会转动的电机并不能完成这件事。

工作原理

Shakey 使用传感器建立简化的环境描述,再把目标分解为可执行步骤。规划程序选择行动,移动装置执行,新的观测再帮助检查状态。大型计算设备承担了相当部分运算。[64]

后续改变

它把感知、规划和行动放入同一个研究系统。阅读时可以追问:机器如何表示“门”“障碍”和“到达”?这些表示决定了它能规划什么。

局限与辨别

实验环境经过简化,速度和能力都受限制。Shakey 的显式符号规划与现代数据训练模型有重要差别。一件早期机器人不能直接解释今天所有人工智能。

继续连接:ELIZA、语言模型与聊天机器人、GPU 与深度学习计算。

Brown Box

Ralph Baer 的 Brown Box 原型;参考图。Jason Scott · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 2.0 · 1920 × 1280 像素 · 点按放大

当时要解决的问题

如果游戏只能在研究机构或街机场所运行,家庭用户仍无法把电视变成互动工具。Ralph Baer 团队研究可接入家用电视的游戏设备。

工作原理

Brown Box 原型用电子电路生成简单图形,并通过控制器接收输入。开关与游戏选择方式设置运行模式。它的思路后来进入 Magnavox Odyssey。[65][66]

后续改变

它确立了电视、外接游戏设备与手持控制器共同组成家用游戏系统的一条产品路线。专用互动硬件开始面向家庭,而不仅服务研究和专业工作。

局限与辨别

Brown Box 不能按后来的可编程卡带主机理解。原型、授权产品和后续主机应分别看待。本页所用照片是原型参考图,不声称来自当前馆内展柜。

继续连接:Pong 原型机、World of Warcraft:持续运行的多人世界。

Pong 原型机

Pong 原型机。Frmorrison · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · 1280 × 720 像素 · 点按放大

当时要解决的问题

电视屏幕已经进入生活,但观众通常只能观看。电子游戏需要把用户输入及时变成可见的变化,再给用户明确的目标和反馈。

工作原理

Pong 的专用电子电路产生球、球拍和计分。旋钮改变球拍位置,电路根据碰撞条件改变球的运动。早期 Pong 主要依靠硬接线逻辑,并不是在通用 CPU 上运行游戏程序。[67]

后续改变

它让简单规则、即时控制和双人竞争进入商业街机市场。游戏也成为验证交互速度、图形与声音体验的实际场景。

局限与辨别

它不是最早的电子游戏。专用逻辑适合一款明确的游戏,却难以像后来的通用主机那样通过更换软件支持大量不同游戏。

继续连接:Brown Box、PDP-1 与 Spacewar!、World of Warcraft:持续运行的多人世界。

犹他茶壶

用于三维图形研究的犹他茶壶实物。The wub · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · 1920 × 1440 像素 · 点按放大

当时要解决的问题

研究者改进曲面、光照和可见性算法时,需要一个大家都能使用的三维对象。每次换模型,会让算法结果难以比较。

工作原理

茶壶的形状被表示为可计算的曲面。程序再决定从某个视点能看到哪些部分,以及光如何照到表面。壶身、壶盖、把手和壶嘴提供了多种曲面与遮挡关系。[68]

后续改变

相同对象让不同技术更容易比较。展柜里的茶壶还说明,数字模型往往来自普通实物。研究者选择怎样表示它,会影响后续算法。

局限与辨别

计算机显示的是数学描述的模型。模型与实物并非每一处都完全一致。一个茶壶测试得好,也不能证明算法在所有复杂场景中同样有效。

继续连接:Pixar Image Computer、GPU 与深度学习计算、Photoshop:像素、图层与选择。

Pixar Image Computer

Pixar Image Computer。User:Victorgrigas · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · 1792 × 2400 像素 · 点按放大

当时要解决的问题

高质量图像包含大量像素与颜色信息。医学、遥感和影视用户需要快速处理这些数据,普通系统的速度和存储能力并不总能满足需求。

工作原理

Pixar Image Computer 是面向图像运算的专用硬件。它处理图像数据与颜色通道,服务专业软件。理解它时应把图像处理设备、三维渲染软件与动画制作流程分开。[69][70]

后续改变

这台设备记录了计算机图形从研究走向专业生产的一种商业尝试。Pixar 后来以动画电影闻名,专用硬件销售与电影制作却是不同的业务。

局限与辨别

专用硬件的性能优势,需要足够大的客户市场和配套软件才能转成持续业务。它也不能独自解释一部动画电影。模型、渲染算法、工具和创作团队同样必要。

继续连接:犹他茶壶、GPU 与深度学习计算、Photoshop:像素、图层与选择。

GPU 与深度学习计算

当时要解决的问题

图像和神经网络包含大量可以重复执行的数值运算。单纯提高通用处理器的单线程速度,难以满足这些工作的规模。

工作原理

GPU 用大量计算单元处理规则的数据运算。训练神经网络时,程序计算预测误差,再调整许多参数。AlexNet 展示了 GPU 实现如何让大规模图像分类训练更实用。[71][72]

后续改变

图形计算积累的并行硬件能力,被用于更广泛的数值任务。数据、模型结构和训练方法与硬件共同影响结果。这条联系把茶壶和专业图形设备接到了现代人工智能。

局限与辨别

GPU 加速取决于任务结构、数据传输和存储。分类成绩改善也不表示模型理解了所有场景。它与 Cray-1 共享利用规则运算的思路,但不是相同的执行架构。

用数据训练模型,原理示意
  1. 样本与目标

    提供训练数据及学习目标

  2. 计算与调整

    计算输出和误差,调整参数

  3. 使用与评估

    对新输入运行模型并检查结果

GPU 加快适合并行的运算;它不单独决定模型是否可靠。

继续连接:Cray-1、犹他茶壶、ELIZA、语言模型与聊天机器人。

ELIZA、语言模型与聊天机器人

当时要解决的问题

自然语言让更多人能向计算机表达需求,也容易让人把流畅回答理解为思考或可靠知识。历史上,不同技术都曾产生这种交互感。

工作原理

ELIZA 用关键词与替换规则生成回应。现代语言模型通常从数据中训练参数,并依据上下文生成后续文本。Transformer 引入的注意力结构,让序列中的位置能相互联系。[6][73]

后续改变

交互入口由专门命令扩展到日常语言。馆方把早期聊天程序与今天的系统放在一起,有助于区分界面体验、内部机制和使用者的期待。

局限与辨别

说得自然不能证明事实正确。规则系统与学习模型都会受设计或数据限制。本页解释历史与机制,不把早期程序的效果直接当作现代系统能力的证据。

继续连接:通用计算与布尔逻辑、Shakey 机器人、GPU 与深度学习计算。

网络、Web 与在线服务

先让设备互相传递数据,再让不同网络互联,最后让人方便地发布和寻找内容。这些步骤对应不同协议与软件,不能只用一台服务器或一个终端概括。

本地连接、跨网传递与信息发布,逐层增加能力。

ARPANET 的 IMP

ARPANET 使用的 IMP 分组交换设备。Steve Jurvetson from Menlo Park, USA · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 2.0 · 1574 × 2400 像素 · 点按放大

当时要解决的问题

不同机构的主机需要共享远程资源。为每对主机准备独占线路既昂贵,也难以扩展。主机之间还存在不同的接口和运行方式。

工作原理

IMP 是连接主机与通信线路的专用计算机。信息被拆成分组,经网络节点转发。多个通信任务共享线路,节点负责把分组送向目的地。[74][75]

后续改变

ARPANET 把分组网络应用到研究机构之间。IMP 将一部分网络功能从各台主机中分离出来,为后续网络设备和协议研究提供了实际经验。

局限与辨别

ARPANET 仍是一张特定网络。把许多采用不同技术的网络连接起来,还需要独立的互联协议。IMP 与今天的互联网不能直接画等号。

继续连接:Ethernet 与局域网、TCP/IP 与网络互联、World Wide Web 与浏览器。

Ethernet 与局域网

当时要解决的问题

办公室的计算机需要共享文件、打印机与其他资源。每台计算机分别配齐设备,或为每对设备单独布线,都不利于扩展。

工作原理

早期 Ethernet 让多台计算机共享通信介质。设备先检查线路,发生冲突时再等待重发。后来的交换式 Ethernet 改变了许多物理连接与通信细节,仍保留兼容发展的标准体系。[57][76]

后续改变

联网成为个人工作站和办公系统的一部分。Alto 的意义也因此包括共享与通信,而不只是鼠标和显示界面。

局限与辨别

局域网解决相近设备之间的通信。跨越不同网络还需要网络互联协议。把早期同轴电缆的共享方式套在所有现代 Ethernet 上,也会造成误解。

继续连接:Xerox Alto、TCP/IP 与网络互联、ARPANET 的 IMP。

TCP/IP 与网络互联

当时要解决的问题

一张网络能连接内部计算机,却不一定能连接另一种网络。无线、卫星和有线网络的细节不同,需要共同的交换约定。

工作原理

IP 提供跨网络的寻址与分组传递。TCP 在其上为需要可靠字节流的应用处理顺序、确认与重传。不同层次承担不同工作,底层网络可以采用不同技术。[75][77][78]

后续改变

网络互联让参与者不必先把所有物理网络统一成一种设备。1977 年的跨网络实验与 1983 年的协议切换,是馆方叙述中的重要事件。

局限与辨别

IP 本身不保证分组一定送达,TCP 也没有消除拥塞、故障或安全问题。互联网能传递数据,与应用能可靠解释这些数据,是不同的责任。

继续连接:ARPANET 的 IMP、Ethernet 与局域网、World Wide Web 与浏览器。

Minitel

Minitel 终端。Jennifer · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 2.0 · 1600 × 1200 像素 · 点按放大

当时要解决的问题

普通家庭缺少上网用的通用计算机,也缺少容易使用的远程信息服务。终端成本、通信接入与服务收费需要一起解决。

工作原理

电话网络连接专用终端与服务主机。用户用屏幕和键盘访问目录、消息及商业服务,相关费用进入电话账单。终端发放与支付体系降低了采用障碍。[79][80]

后续改变

它在 Web 普及前形成大规模在线使用。服务分发、终端补贴和统一计费的重要性,在这里可以直接观察。在线生活没有从浏览器出现那一刻才开始。

局限与辨别

Minitel 的服务与商业组织方式,比开放 Web 更集中。不同国家也有其他 videotex 系统,但结果各不相同。法国经验不能直接当作所有市场的规律。

继续连接:World Wide Web 与浏览器、手机、掌上电脑与移动互联网、短信:短消息与移动服务。

World Wide Web 与浏览器

当时要解决的问题

网络已经能传递数据,但各机构的文档与信息系统彼此分散。使用者需要一种跨机器访问内容并跟随引用的方法。

工作原理

URL 标识资源,HTTP 让客户端请求资源,HTML 描述页面与链接。浏览器把这些约定组合成可阅读和操作的界面。早期 WorldWideWeb 浏览器还包含编辑功能。[81][80][82]

后续改变

个人和组织能逐步发布内容,无需先建立一个全球统一的中央目录。跨平台浏览器与较低的发布门槛帮助 Web 扩散,搜索随后处理内容增长带来的发现问题。

局限与辨别

Web 运行在互联网之上。电子邮件等服务也能使用互联网,却不必成为网页。开放协议支持传播,同时也留下垃圾信息、身份冒充与内容可信度等问题。

一次网页访问的常见分层,原理示意
  1. 浏览器与 HTTP

    请求并解释资源

  2. TCP/IP

    提供跨网络的数据传递

  3. 本地连接

    使用具体接口发送数据

这是使用 TCP 的示例;现代 Web 也可以使用其他传输机制。

继续连接:TCP/IP 与网络互联、Minitel、Google 早期服务器机架。

Google 早期服务器机架

1999 年的 Google 服务器机架。Atomic Taco from Seattle, WA, USA · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 2.0 · 1600 × 2400 像素 · 点按放大

当时要解决的问题

网页数量增长后,搜索引擎需要保存索引并快速回答大量查询。不断购买更强的单台机器,并不是唯一的扩展方式。

工作原理

机架使用常见计算机部件。软件把工作分给多台机器,并把局部结果组合成回答。搜索还需要抓取网页、建立索引和排序。机架只是整个服务的一部分。[83][84]

后续改变

它把网络规模的服务需求与成组计算设备连接起来。普通硬件、专门软件和运维共同支撑服务扩展,这也为理解现代数据中心提供了实物入口。

局限与辨别

这组机架不是现代云计算的完整实现,也不能单凭照片推断当时全部容错机制。机器增加后,故障、通信和数据一致性会成为新的工程问题。

继续连接:ARPANET 的 IMP、World Wide Web 与浏览器、分布式服务与云计算。

分布式服务与云计算

当时要解决的问题

在线业务的负载会变化。自建服务器需要提前购买、安装和维护,使用者需要提前为预留容量付费。

工作原理

云服务通过接口提供可分配的计算和存储。使用者请求资源,服务方安排底层机器及相关管理。多个物理系统与管理软件共同支持服务,虚拟机只是其中一种交付方式。[85][86]

后续改变

取得计算资源的方式由采购设备扩展到按需租用。早期分时的共享观念在这里获得新的网络、自动化和商业条件。现代云也增加了大量管理服务。

局限与辨别

云没有消除物理机器、网络故障或费用。分布式软件仍需考虑恢复、数据一致性和依赖。EC2 是本文补充的行业实例,不声称馆内有一件对应的 2006 年实物。

继续连接:分时、操作系统与 Unix、关系数据库与 SQL、Google 早期服务器机架。

随身计算与新的显示方式

便携性要求处理器、供电、通信与输入输出共同改变。掌上电脑、自行车实验、智能手机和头戴设备展示了不同的取舍。

计算能力随身移动,需要整套系统适应人的活动。

BEHEMOTH 计算机自行车

BEHEMOTH 计算机自行车。Magwich777 · Wikimedia Commons · CC0 · 1920 × 1440 像素 · 点按放大

当时要解决的问题

Steven K. Roberts 希望在旅行中继续写作和通信。便携计算机、无线设备和供电方式尚未整合成今天的手机,他需要自行组装工作环境。

工作原理

卧式自行车搭载多台计算机和多种无线通信设备。把手键盘、头戴显示器及车载供电,让输入、显示和联网跟随使用者移动。车体和拖车承担设备重量。[87][88]

后续改变

它把“工作地点可以移动”的设想变成可运行系统。研究它可以看到,移动计算需要同时解决供电、通信、输入与物理安装。

局限与辨别

它是高度个人化、重量很大的实验平台,不能代表大众市场的普遍产品。其意义在系统组合和生活实践,而非某项单独器件的首次发明。

继续连接:PalmPilot、手机、掌上电脑与移动互联网、Extended Reality 与空间交互。

PalmPilot

1995 年的 PalmPilot 原型。Michael Hicks from Saint Paul, MN, USA · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 2.0 · 1600 × 2400 像素 · 点按放大

当时要解决的问题

日历、联系人和待办需要随身携带,也需要与办公电脑保持一致。掌上设备如果输入慢、响应慢或同步困难,很容易增加维护负担。

工作原理

Palm 把常见管理任务放到小屏设备上,用触控笔与简化的手写输入操作,再通过底座与电脑同步。团队也用模型检查体积、携带和操作步骤。[89]

后续改变

它让掌上电脑成为个人电脑的实用伙伴。其成功涉及任务选择、响应速度、同步和价格的共同作用,为后来手机中的个人信息管理提供了经验。

局限与辨别

它没有让所有工作都转移到掌上。这里的关键是可靠完成少量高频任务。照片是开发原型,应与正式销售产品的年代和外形分开。

继续连接:BEHEMOTH 计算机自行车、手机、掌上电脑与移动互联网。

手机、掌上电脑与移动互联网

当时要解决的问题

掌上电脑善于管理个人信息,手机善于通话。用户还希望随时收发消息、访问网络和运行应用,需要把通信与计算体验整合起来。

工作原理

移动处理器、存储、触控界面和无线网络共同组成平台。操作系统管理应用与硬件。网络服务保存和同步部分数据。早期 Simon、Nokia Communicator 等设备展示了不同的组合方式。[90][91]

后续改变

计算从固定工作场所进入更多日常活动。手机的使用方式也取决于移动网络、应用分发和在线服务,不能只用屏幕尺寸解释。

局限与辨别

智能手机没有单一且毫无争议的起点。原型展示、正式销售和大规模采用的日期也不同。便携性同时带来电池、隐私和平台控制等限制。

继续连接:PalmPilot、BEHEMOTH 计算机自行车、短信:短消息与移动服务、Extended Reality 与空间交互。

Extended Reality 与空间交互

当时要解决的问题

屏幕上的二维页面不适合所有任务。头戴设备希望把数字内容放入人的视野,或把人带入一个随头部动作变化的虚拟场景。

工作原理

显示与光学系统呈现图像,传感器估计头部或环境状态,软件据此更新视点和内容。VR 主要呈现虚拟场景,AR 把数字信息加入现实视野。不同产品的实现并不相同。[7][92]

后续改变

馆方特展跨越早期头戴显示、商用头盔与较新的智能眼镜。它把感知、图形计算、交互和可穿戴设备放在同一条研究线上。

局限与辨别

延迟、重量、供电和视觉舒适度会限制使用。馆方公布展出超过 100 件设备,但公开页面只列出部分例子,本页没有把这些例子声称为完整实物清单。

继续连接:Xerox Alto、GPU 与深度学习计算、手机、掌上电脑与移动互联网。

软件怎样进入实际工作

Make Software 的七个主题展示了通用机器怎样通过不同模型解决具体问题。同一台计算机可以处理声音、像素、测量、碰撞和多人协作;有用的表示与算法决定了它实际能做什么。

软件把计算资源变成具体工具。

MP3:声音模型与数据压缩

当时要解决的问题

高保真音频的原始数字文件占用较多容量。有限的网络传输速度与便携设备容量,限制了下载和随身保存音乐。

工作原理

MP3 编码利用听觉模型,减少不容易被听见或会被其他声音掩盖的信息,再用编码方式保存剩余内容。播放器解码后生成声音。文件变小来自有损取舍与编码效率的结合。[93]

后续改变

较小的文件使网络音乐和便携播放器更实用,也改变了音乐分发。这里的软件价值来自对声音与听觉的建模,而不仅是运行得更快。

局限与辨别

压缩不能保证所有听者在所有条件下听不出差别。码率、音源和播放条件都重要。有损文件也不能在解码后恢复所有舍弃的信息。

继续连接:微处理器与 Intel 4004、手机、掌上电脑与移动互联网。

Photoshop:像素、图层与选择

当时要解决的问题

图像编辑需要裁切、调整色彩和组合内容。传统暗房与手工作业难以快速撤销、重复和比较多个版本。

工作原理

数字图像把亮度和颜色表示为像素数值。编辑操作改变这些数值。图层保存可分别处理的内容,蒙版控制哪些区域参与合成。界面把复杂运算转成可重复的编辑动作。[94]

后续改变

专业图像处理进入更广泛的设计和个人使用。科学图像与商业图像都能采用数字处理,但其解释、真实性与发布责任需要分别判断。

局限与辨别

自然可信的外观无法排除图像经过处理。软件的编辑能力不等于内容证据。馆方展览借此讨论图像传播与信任,页面中的历史照片仍需保留来源。

继续连接:犹他茶壶、Pixar Image Computer、GPU 与深度学习计算。

MRI:从测量信号重建图像

当时要解决的问题

观察人体内部并不总能直接取得照片。成像设备需要把可测量的物理信号转换成具有空间意义的表示。

工作原理

MRI 使用磁场和射频脉冲产生、采集组织相关信号。梯度场帮助编码空间位置,软件控制采集过程,并把信号重建为图像。不同的采集设置强调不同信息。[95]

后续改变

它提供了计算如何参与科学仪器的清楚例子:硬件取得测量,软件决定采集与重建,专业人员解释结果。看到的图像来自一整套模型和测量过程。

局限与辨别

图像的形成依赖采集与重建。重建参数、运动和测量条件都会影响图像,屏幕上的清晰程度也不等于判断一定正确。

继续连接:Nordsieck 微分分析机、Cray-1、汽车碰撞模拟:数值模型与验证。

汽车碰撞模拟:数值模型与验证

当时要解决的问题

每一种汽车设计都直接制造并撞毁,成本很高。工程师希望在原型完成前,比较结构怎样变形以及乘员舱如何受影响。

工作原理

有限元方法把连续结构划分为较小单元。软件根据材料、连接、接触和初始条件,逐步计算受力与变形。模型中的每一种近似都会影响结果。[96]

后续改变

计算使更多设计方案可以提前比较。它连接了早期微分方程求解、超级计算和实际产品开发,说明科学计算怎样进入工业日常工作。

局限与辨别

模拟必须与真实碰撞和材料测量核对。漂亮的动画只表示计算结果已经可视化,不能单凭画面证明模型正确,也不能省略安全验证。

工程模拟与验证,原理示意
  1. 建立模型

    定义形状、材料与边界条件

  2. 数值计算

    逐步计算受力与变形

  3. 核对测量

    用真实数据检查模型误差

计算结果的可信度取决于模型、输入与验证。

继续连接:Nordsieck 微分分析机、Cray-1、关系数据库与 SQL。

Wikipedia:可修订的共同知识

当时要解决的问题

百科内容需要广泛覆盖并持续更新。固定编辑团队很难独自处理所有主题,完全开放修改又会带来破坏与冲突。

工作原理

Wiki 软件允许多人编辑页面。修订历史、比较和撤销把变化保存下来,编辑规则与社群分工再帮助处理争议。数据库保存内容,页面与链接组织读者的访问。[97]

后续改变

知识生产成为网络协作过程。软件降低参与成本,并让修订可见。公开内容和开源软件的组合,也支持再利用与进一步编辑。

局限与辨别

多人参与不自动产生可靠结论。来源质量、覆盖偏差和维护能力仍然重要。阅读研究页时,修订机制与来源记录比“任何人都能编辑”这一口号更有解释力。

继续连接:World Wide Web 与浏览器、关系数据库与 SQL、分时、操作系统与 Unix。

短信:短消息与移动服务

当时要解决的问题

并非所有人都拥有智能手机和稳定的数据接入。用户仍需要在不同时间收发短消息,商家与机构也需要便宜的通知方式。

工作原理

SMS 采用运营商网络中的消息传递服务。消息中心可以保存并转发消息,终端不必像通话那样始终同时在线。字符编码与服务规则会影响单条消息可承载的内容。[98]

后续改变

简单终端就能参与更广泛的信息交换。馆方还用移动支付等案例说明,重要服务可以通过有限界面到达用户,而不必等待最强的设备普及。

局限与辨别

短信、USSD 与 SIM Toolkit 是相关但不同的机制,不能把所有功能手机服务统称为 SMS。费用、身份验证和运营商规则也会影响具体应用。

继续连接:Minitel、手机、掌上电脑与移动互联网。

World of Warcraft:持续运行的多人世界

当时要解决的问题

多人在线游戏需要让大量参与者共享一个持续变化的世界。每台电脑独自画出场景,并不能保证玩家看见的状态相互一致。

工作原理

客户端接收输入并绘制图像,服务器维护与协调世界状态,网络持续交换行动和结果。角色、物品与进度需要保存,界面、图形和服务系统共同支持体验。[99]

后续改变

游戏成为长期运营的软件服务。图形硬件、实时通信、数据管理和社群组织在这里同时发挥作用,远超单台主机里的一段程序。

局限与辨别

延迟、拥塞和服务中断会直接影响体验。规模扩大还需要内容制作、维护和用户支持。它代表一类成熟应用组合,不能当作多人网络游戏的最早起点。

继续连接:Pong 原型机、GPU 与深度学习计算、分布式服务与云计算、关系数据库与 SQL。

容易混淆的概念

概念本文中的含义需要分别判断的内容
计算器与通用计算机前者常固定任务;后者可用不同程序描述不同任务。器件数量与可编程性并不是同一指标。
模拟与数字用连续物理量对应问题,或把数据表示为离散编码。模拟是计算方式;模拟现实的“仿真”也可以运行在数字计算机上。
主存与持久存储前者服务执行中的程序与数据;后者承担较长期的保存。磁芯可以断电保留,但仍曾承担主存职责。
CPU、GPU 与完整系统分别是不同任务取向的处理器;完整系统还包括其他部件。GPU 并不是对任何程序都更快。
体系结构与具体实现对软件可见的约定,与电路如何实现这些约定。同一指令体系可以有不同内部实现。
源代码与机器程序前者供人表达程序;后者由特定执行环境运行。重新编译后的可移植性,不等于原有二进制可直接运行。
局域网、互联网与 Web本地设备连接、网络互联、网络上的信息发布系统。有互联网连接,不代表正在访问网页。
模型与现实用可计算的表示描述某些关系。结果精细、图像逼真或语言流畅,都不能代替验证。
原件、原型、复制品与重建分别涉及历史物件、开发阶段和后世制作。照片的拍摄日期、物件制造日期与技术提出日期需要分别记录。

这些用法对应正文的机制解释。相关原始资料可从逻辑电路、存储程序、存储设备、编程与网络各专题的引文核对。

范围、证据与覆盖边界

馆方把 31 站导览设计为约一小时的参观路线,并未将其发布为计算机史的唯一重要性排名。本文把能改变计算方式、成本或使用范围的内容列入技术主线;产品实验和产业文化也保留,但注明其研究角色。角色标签是本文的分析分类。

[1]
资料范围已经整理的内容边界
Revolution 主展原有 31 项全部重写,并补充关键技术专题。馆方当前介绍为 19 个展厅、约 1,100 件物件。[2]没有取得逐件标明当前展出状态的完整实物清单。
Revolution 公开在线展览核对 20 个主题、302 个导航链接对应页面,合并得到 2,080 条公开记录。[3]包含实物照片、人物、视频与文献等;记录与实物不一一对应。
Make Software七个应用主题分别解释机制与影响。[4]按主题研究,没有逐件收录该展区所有实物。
IBM 1401 与 PDP-1 演示解释业务批处理、交互式计算和修复演示的作用。[5]不承诺特定参观日期的演示安排。
Chatbots Decoded 与 XR补充早期聊天程序、语言模型和头戴显示的技术关系。[6][7]XR 公开网页列出的例子不能代替超过 100 件设备的完整清单。
其他馆方内容馆方还列出 Silicon Valley 地图等入口。[8]本页没有把地图上的每家公司作为独立研究对象。
历史背景与行业补充补入理论、Babbage、云计算及较新的计算方法。有些属于解释技术关系的补充,不声称都有当前在展实物。

“发明”“首次实用运行”“商业发布”和“大规模采用”的时间需要分别记录。照片中的对象包括原型、复制品和后世重建模型。各条目尽量分别说明这些信息。

公开在线展览条目索引

下列 2,080 条记录来自 20 个在线主题的公开页面。记录包括实物、照片、人物、视频和文献;索引保留馆方英文名称,方便回查。重复出现的记录按页面记录编号合并,并归入首次出现的主题。

本节完成条目定位和来源整理,没有把每条记录都写成独立深度研究。它也不证明某件物品在资料核对日实际陈列于展柜中。

在线主题去重记录数官方入口
计算工具146CHM:计算工具
打孔卡67CHM:打孔卡
模拟计算70CHM:模拟计算
计算机诞生82CHM:计算机诞生
早期计算机公司81CHM:早期计算机公司
实时计算55CHM:实时计算
大型机98CHM:大型机
存储176CHM:存储
程序设计3CHM:程序设计
超级计算机61CHM:超级计算机
小型机96CHM:小型机
数字逻辑268CHM:数字逻辑
人工智能与机器人71CHM:人工智能与机器人
输入输出122CHM:输入输出
图形、音乐与艺术80CHM:图形、音乐与艺术
计算机游戏136CHM:计算机游戏
个人计算机127CHM:个人计算机
移动计算125CHM:移动计算
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计算工具"A merchant making up the account," by HokusaiThe Versatile, Venerable Abacus
计算工具"Pinwheel" Calculator DiagramPins and Levers
计算工具A Leibniz Stepped Reckoner calculatorThe Leibniz Step Reckoner and Curta Calculators
计算工具A page from Summa de arithmetica, geometrica, proportioni et proportionalitaMathematical Tools
计算工具A Schickard sketch of his calculatorSchickard’s Calculator and The Pascaline
计算工具A “human computer” at Langley Aeronautical LaboratorySetting a New Standard
计算工具AbacusThe Versatile, Venerable Abacus
计算工具Advertisement comparing slide rules to electronicsSlide Rules
计算工具Advertisement for the HP 9100ALarge Calculator…or Small Computer?
计算工具AEG Office, BerlinSlide Rules
计算工具Airforce personnel using a slide ruleSlide Rules
计算工具Anita electronic calculatorElectronic Calculators
计算工具ANITA electronic calculator advertisementElectronic Calculators
计算工具Augusta Ada King (née Byron), Countess of LovelaceThe Revolutionary Babbage Engine: Unprecedented. Unparalleled. And Unfinished.
计算工具Babbage Difference Engine No. 1 Demonstration Piece - three-quarter-scale replicaThe Revolutionary Babbage Engine: Unprecedented. Unparalleled. And Unfinished.
计算工具Baldwin patent drawingPins and Levers
计算工具Baldwin’s commercial pinwheel calculatorPins and Levers
计算工具Blaise PascalSchickard’s Calculator and The Pascaline
计算工具Boucher's CalculatorSlide Rules
计算工具Bowmar MX55 Personal Calculator ("Bowmar Brain")From Desktops to Handhelds
计算工具Burroughs Adding and listing machineAnswers in Black and White (And Sometimes Right)
计算工具Burroughs electric calculator advertisementBeyond the Basics: Calculators in the 20th Century
计算工具Busicom LE-120A (“HANDY-LE”) advertisementFrom Desktops to Handhelds
计算工具Calculator design drawings by PascalSchickard’s Calculator and The Pascaline
计算工具CalculigrapheSlide Rules
计算工具CalculimetreSlide Rules
计算工具Canon LS-701II FlashCard calculatorFrom Desktops to Handhelds
计算工具Canon Pocketronic printing calculatorElectronic Calculators
计算工具Casio Mini-Printer calculatorFrom Desktops to Handhelds
计算工具Casio Pocket-Mini P-811 calculatorFrom Desktops to Handhelds
计算工具Charles BabbageThe Revolutionary Babbage Engine: Unprecedented. Unparalleled. And Unfinished.
计算工具Charles Thomas de ColmarMass-Produced Calculators
计算工具Chief Lens Designer Gordon H. Cook, Cooke OpticsSetting a New Standard
计算工具Children compute with an abacusMathematical Tools
计算工具Circular slide ruleSlide Rules
计算工具Coggeshall slide ruleSlide Rules
计算工具Curt Herzstark in ViennaThe Leibniz Step Reckoner and Curta Calculators
计算工具Curta CalculatorThe Leibniz Step Reckoner and Curta Calculators
计算工具Curta calculator parts, mid-1950sThe Leibniz Step Reckoner and Curta Calculators
计算工具Detail from the Darius VaseThe Versatile, Venerable Abacus
计算工具Dorr E. Felt (r) and partner Robert Tarrant (l)Introducing the Keyboard
计算工具Duplex slide ruleSlide Rules
计算工具Elizur Wright Arithmeter, No. 11 Cylindrical Slide RuleSlide Rules
计算工具False Dawn: The Babbage EngineThe Revolutionary Babbage Engine: Unprecedented. Unparalleled. And Unfinished.
计算工具Felix ArithmometerPins and Levers
计算工具Felt & Tarrant ComptometerIntroducing the Keyboard
计算工具Felt & Tarrant ComptometerIntroducing the Keyboard
计算工具Felt’s first prototype presented to the Smithsonian InstitutionIntroducing the Keyboard
计算工具Fowler's "Jubilee Magnum," slide ruleSlide Rules
计算工具Fowler's Textile CalculatorSlide Rules
计算工具Fowler's Universal slide ruleSlide Rules
计算工具Fragment of the Antikythera mechanismA Classical Wonder: The Antikythera Mechanism
计算工具Friden advertisementBeyond the Basics: Calculators in the 20th Century
计算工具Friden SRQ-10 calculatorSetting a New Standard
计算工具Fuller's slide ruleSlide Rules
计算工具Gauger's slide ruleSlide Rules
计算工具Gottfried LeibnizThe Leibniz Step Reckoner and Curta Calculators
计算工具Gunter's line of numbersSlide Rules
计算工具Hong Far Low abacusThe Versatile, Venerable Abacus
计算工具How to Use a Slide RuleSlide Rules
计算工具HP-01 digital wristwatch calculatorFrom Desktops to Handhelds
计算工具HP-19B Business ConsultantFrom Desktops to Handhelds
计算工具HP-35 "Electronic-Slide-Rule" CalculatorPower in Your Pocket
计算工具HP-65 Programmable Scientific CalculatorPower in Your Pocket
计算工具HP-80 Business CalculatorPower in Your Pocket
计算工具HP-97 printing programmable calculatorFrom Desktops to Handhelds
计算工具Human ComputersHuman Computers
计算工具Jack Kilby with the first palm-sized calculatorFrom Desktops to Handhelds
计算工具JetonsThe Original “Pocket Calculator”
计算工具John Napier of Merchiston, ScotlandEasy…and Accurate: Mechanical Calculators
计算工具Jupan (Korean abacus)The Versatile, Venerable Abacus
计算工具Large-scale tabulating operationHuman Computers
计算工具Leadbetter slide ruleSlide Rules
计算工具Little Professor Arithmetic GameElectronic Calculators
计算工具Log Log slide ruleSlide Rules
计算工具Log-Log Duplex Trig slide ruleSlide Rules
计算工具Loga measurement-conversion slide ruleSlide Rules
计算工具Lord's CalculatorSlide Rules
计算工具Lord's CalculatorSlide Rules
计算工具Mannheim slide ruleSlide Rules
计算工具Marchant "ACRM" CalculatorSetting a New Standard
计算工具Marchant electronic calculator advertisementBeyond the Basics: Calculators in the 20th Century
计算工具Metal slide ruleSlide Rules
计算工具MillionaireBeyond the Basics: Calculators in the 20th Century
计算工具Millionaire US patent drawingsBeyond the Basics: Calculators in the 20th Century
计算工具Monroe CalculatorSetting a New Standard
计算工具Monroe calculator advertisementBeyond the Basics: Calculators in the 20th Century
计算工具Monroe calculator advertisementBeyond the Basics: Calculators in the 20th Century
计算工具Monroe LA5-160 CalculatorSetting a New Standard
计算工具Napier's BonesEasy…and Accurate: Mechanical Calculators
计算工具Nestler-matho 500 Data BankFrom Desktops to Handhelds
计算工具Olivetti Programma 101Large Calculator…or Small Computer?
计算工具Olivetti Programma 101 advertisementLarge Calculator…or Small Computer?
计算工具Otis King cylindrical slide ruleSlide Rules
计算工具Pascal Adder (Pascaline) - replicaSchickard’s Calculator and The Pascaline
计算工具Portrait of Wong Mon TongThe Versatile, Venerable Abacus
计算工具Posthumous illustration of Stepped Reckoner mechanismsThe Leibniz Step Reckoner and Curta Calculators
计算工具Rockwell 8R calculatorFrom Desktops to Handhelds
计算工具Salamis tablet, marbleThe Versatile, Venerable Abacus
计算工具Scheutz difference engine No. 3The Revolutionary Babbage Engine: Unprecedented. Unparalleled. And Unfinished.
计算工具Schickard Calculator - replicaSchickard’s Calculator and The Pascaline
计算工具SchotyThe Original “Pocket Calculator”
计算工具Schoty (Russian abacus) at Moscow fruit marketThe Original “Pocket Calculator”
计算工具SectorSectors
计算工具SectorSectors
计算工具SectorSectors
计算工具SectorSectors
计算工具SectorSectors
计算工具SectorSectors
计算工具Sector DiagramSectors
计算工具Sharp EL-805 calculatorFrom Desktops to Handhelds
计算工具Slide ruleSlide Rules
计算工具Slide ruleSlide Rules
计算工具Slide rule tie clipSlide Rules
计算工具SorobanThe Versatile, Venerable Abacus
计算工具Soroban (Japanese abacus) at the Tokyo fish marketThe Versatile, Venerable Abacus
计算工具Soroban (transitional)The Versatile, Venerable Abacus
计算工具Soroban, with Sharp EL-429 Electronic CalculatorThe Original “Pocket Calculator”
计算工具SR-50 "Slide Rule" calculatorPower in Your Pocket
计算工具Sumador ChinoEasy…and Accurate: Mechanical Calculators
计算工具Sumlock Comptometer calculatorsElectronic Calculators
计算工具Table abacus instructions, Rechenbuch auff Linien und Ziphren...The Versatile, Venerable Abacus
计算工具Tandy Pocket Computer PC-8From Desktops to Handhelds
计算工具Teaching slide ruleSlide Rules
计算工具Texas Instruments and the Marketing of the Datamath Calculator, Charles PhippsFrom Desktops to Handhelds
计算工具Thatcher's RuleSlide Rules
计算工具The Antikythera MechanismA Classical Wonder: The Antikythera Mechanism
计算工具The Binary Slide Rule, circular slide ruleSlide Rules
计算工具The merchant with his counting frame, ink drawing, probably by Kano, 1878The Versatile, Venerable Abacus
计算工具The “General Plan” of the Analytical EngineThe Revolutionary Babbage Engine: Unprecedented. Unparalleled. And Unfinished.
计算工具Thomas ArithmometerMass-Produced Calculators
计算工具Thomas Arithmometer design details, from M. Hoyau, "Bulletin de la Société d'encouragement pour l'industrie nationale"Mass-Produced Calculators
计算工具TI PC-100A Printer and Security CradleFrom Desktops to Handhelds
计算工具TI-59 Programmable calculatorFrom Desktops to Handhelds
计算工具Title page, Adam Ries, "Rechnung auff der Linihen und Feder"The Original “Pocket Calculator”
计算工具Tractatus Georgii Peurbachii super propositiones Ptolemaei de sinubus & chordisThe Revolutionary Babbage Engine: Unprecedented. Unparalleled. And Unfinished.
计算工具TSI SPEECH+From Desktops to Handhelds
计算工具Typical accounting office with comptometersIntroducing the Keyboard
计算工具US Veterans Bureau, Computing DivisionAnswers in Black and White (And Sometimes Right)
计算工具Wilhelm SchickardSchickard’s Calculator and The Pascaline
计算工具William OughtredSlide Rules
计算工具William Seward BurroughsAnswers in Black and White (And Sometimes Right)
计算工具Woodcut from L'usage du compas de proportionSectors
计算工具Woodcut from Vitruvius TeutschSectors
计算工具Woodcut of a counting tableThe Original “Pocket Calculator”
计算工具X-ray of a fragment of the Antikythera MechanismA Classical Wonder: The Antikythera Mechanism
打孔卡"THINK" signsAn Empire Built on Punched Cards
打孔卡100% Club members celebratingNot-So-Hard Times
打孔卡40-column Card PunchA Scientific Census
打孔卡40-column Powers-Samas cardA Card Catalogue of British Life!
打孔卡40-column Punched CardsA Scientific Census
打孔卡A typical 1930s punched card installationCreating A Digital Code
打孔卡Automatic check signing machineA Bookkeeping Bonanza!
打孔卡Baltimore Social Security officeA Bookkeeping Bonanza!
打孔卡Bicentennial punched cardThe Punched Card’s Pedigree
打孔卡Bill Worthington: What is a Punched Card?Creating A Digital Code
打孔卡Butterfly print from "Entomology. Vol III, British Butterflies"A Card Catalogue of British Life!
打孔卡Census worker collects dataMaking Sense of the Census: Hollerith’s Punched Card Solution
打孔卡Checking the mapsA Card Catalogue of British Life!
打孔卡Close-up of Jacquard loom cardsThe Punched Card’s Pedigree
打孔卡Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company product posterAn Empire Built on Punched Cards
打孔卡Data entryThe Punched Card’s Pedigree
打孔卡Division of Employment Security Identification CardCreating A Digital Code
打孔卡E.E. Ford addressing salesmenR & D = $
打孔卡Ellis D. Kropotchev Silent FilmCreating A Digital Code
打孔卡Endicott Sales SchoolR & D = $
打孔卡Endicott school buildingR & D = $
打孔卡Herman Hollerith at age 24Making Sense of the Census: Hollerith’s Punched Card Solution
打孔卡Herman Hollerith with TabulatorMaking Sense of the Census: Hollerith’s Punched Card Solution
打孔卡Hollerith Electric Tabulating System (replica)Making Sense of the Census: Hollerith’s Punched Card Solution
打孔卡Hollerith Pantograph in useMaking Sense of the Census: Hollerith’s Punched Card Solution
打孔卡Hollerith system on cover of "Scientific American"Making Sense of the Census: Hollerith’s Punched Card Solution
打孔卡IBM "THINK" pocket note padAn Empire Built on Punched Cards
打孔卡IBM 405 Alphabetic Accounting MachineA Bookkeeping Bonanza!
打孔卡IBM advertisementAn Empire Built on Punched Cards
打孔卡IBM Card Punch PositionCreating A Digital Code
打孔卡IBM: Ever OnwardAn Empire Built on Punched Cards
打孔卡Ida Mae FullerA Bookkeeping Bonanza!
打孔卡Illustrations from "Drawings of British Plants"A Card Catalogue of British Life!
打孔卡Jacquard fabric sampleThe Punched Card’s Pedigree
打孔卡Jacquard loom cardsThe Punched Card’s Pedigree
打孔卡Model 406 Card SorterA Scientific Census
打孔卡Operator at Powers-Samas punchA Scientific Census
打孔卡Operator at sorterA Scientific Census
打孔卡Pantograph Card PunchMaking Sense of the Census: Hollerith’s Punched Card Solution
打孔卡Poster announcing Social SecurityA Bookkeeping Bonanza!
打孔卡Poughkeepsie production plantWar in the Information Age
打孔卡Printing card punchA Scientific Census
打孔卡Professor Tom Tutin and colleaguesA Card Catalogue of British Life!
打孔卡Punched Card illustrationMaking Sense of the Census: Hollerith’s Punched Card Solution
打孔卡Punched card tub fileThe Punched Card’s Pedigree
打孔卡Remington Rand Unit Record Equipment advertisementThe Punched Card’s Pedigree
打孔卡Roosevelt signing the Social Security ActNot-So-Hard Times
打孔卡Social Security cardA Bookkeeping Bonanza!
打孔卡Social Security clerk sorts a deckA Bookkeeping Bonanza!
打孔卡Soup line for the unemployed, ChicagoNot-So-Hard Times
打孔卡The Botanical Society of The British Isles the Atlas of the British FloraA Scientific Census
打孔卡The IBM Punched CardCreating A Digital Code
打孔卡Time ClockAn Empire Built on Punched Cards
打孔卡Tom Watson, Sr. meets with Adolf HitlerWar in the Information Age
打孔卡Type 10 Table Top Electric Key PunchA Bookkeeping Bonanza!
打孔卡Type 11 Electric KeypunchAn Empire Built on Punched Cards
打孔卡Type 26 Printing Card PunchCreating A Digital Code
打孔卡Type 31 Alphabetical Duplicating PunchA Bookkeeping Bonanza!
打孔卡Type 403 Accounting MachineAn Empire Built on Punched Cards
打孔卡Type 77 CollatorA Bookkeeping Bonanza!
打孔卡Type 80 Card SorterA Bookkeeping Bonanza!
打孔卡Type 82 Card SorterAn Empire Built on Punched Cards
打孔卡Type 83 Card SorterCreating A Digital Code
打孔卡United States ten dollar noteMaking Sense of the Census: Hollerith’s Punched Card Solution
打孔卡Woman at IBM 77 Collator with enlarged punched cardA Bookkeeping Bonanza!
打孔卡Woman working with Jacquard loomThe Punched Card’s Pedigree
打孔卡Yousuf Karsh photo of Thomas Watson, Sr.An Empire Built on Punched Cards
模拟计算A Palimpsest on the Electronic Analog ArtA Key Component: The Operational Amplifier
模拟计算Adage 770 hybrid computer linkage system brochureThe Best of Both Worlds: Hybrid Computing
模拟计算Analog/hybrid comparison brochureThe Best of Both Worlds: Hybrid Computing
模拟计算Applied Dynamics Five analog/hybrid computing system brochureThe Best of Both Worlds: Hybrid Computing
模拟计算Arnold Nordsieck with the Nordsieck Differential AnalyzerNordsieck’s Differential Analyzer
模拟计算Arthur Porter: A Great Educational ToolBush’s Analog Solution
模拟计算Beckman computer at the San Francisco airportAnalog Goes Electronic
模拟计算Beckman computer brochureThe Best of Both Worlds: Hybrid Computing
模拟计算Bob Widlar (1937–1991)Op-amp Circuit Design
模拟计算Bob Widlar with sheepOp-amp Circuit Design
模拟计算Ci-150 and Ci-5000 analog hybrid solid state computer brochureThe Best of Both Worlds: Hybrid Computing
模拟计算Datenverarbeitung Hybrides Rechnersystem HRS 860 brochureThe Best of Both Worlds: Hybrid Computing
模拟计算EAI 180 hybrid computing system brochureThe Best of Both Worlds: Hybrid Computing
模拟计算EAI 580 patch panelAnalog On Your Team
模拟计算EAI 590 hybrid computing system brochureThe Best of Both Worlds: Hybrid Computing
模拟计算EAI 640 hybrid computing system brochureThe Best of Both Worlds: Hybrid Computing
模拟计算EAI 640 hybrid computing system brochureThe Best of Both Worlds: Hybrid Computing
模拟计算EAI 690 hybrid computing system brochureThe Best of Both Worlds: Hybrid Computing
模拟计算EAI Application NotesChoosing Analog
模拟计算EAI computer brochureThe Best of Both Worlds: Hybrid Computing
模拟计算EAI Flowcharting TemplateAnalog On Your Team
模拟计算EAI hybrid computing system brochureThe Best of Both Worlds: Hybrid Computing
模拟计算EAI PACE TR-48 analog computerAnalog On Your Team
模拟计算EAI TR-10/TR-48Analog On Your Team
模拟计算EAI TR-20 dual integrator network moduleA Key Component: The Operational Amplifier
模拟计算Fairchild Semiconductor µA709 operational amplifierOp-amp Circuit Design
模拟计算GAP/R Vacuum Tube K2-W Operational AmplifierOp-amp Circuit Design
模拟计算General Precision Systems' General Purpose Analog ComputerAnalog Goes Electronic
模拟计算George Philbrick (1913–1974)Op-amp Circuit Design
模拟计算H-1 Educational ComputerAnalog On Your Team
模拟计算Hybrid Computing at LockheedThe Best of Both Worlds: Hybrid Computing
模拟计算HYDAC 2400 Hybrid Digital/Analog Computer brochureThe Best of Both Worlds: Hybrid Computing
模拟计算J. Amsler-Laffon's Mechanical IntegratorThe Road to Nordsieck’s Machine
模拟计算J. Amsler-Laffon's Mechanical Integrator design drawingThe Road to Nordsieck’s Machine
模拟计算Kelvin's Harmonic AnalyserThe Road to Nordsieck’s Machine
模拟计算Keuffel & Esser Planimeter advertisementThe Road to Nordsieck’s Machine
模拟计算Letter from Richard Norberg to Arnold NordsieckNordsieck’s Differential Analyzer
模拟计算M10 Gun DirectorA Key Component: The Operational Amplifier
模拟计算MADDIDA (Magnetic Drum Digital Differential Analyzer) prototypeAnalog Computing…On Digital Machines
模拟计算MADDIDA Customer DemonstrationAnalog Computing…On Digital Machines
模拟计算Martin-Marietta Tactical Avionics System SimulatorChoosing Analog
模拟计算Moore School Differential AnalyzerBush’s Analog Solution
模拟计算National Semiconductor LM10 operational amplifierOp-amp Circuit Design
模拟计算Nordsieck Differential AnalyzerNordsieck’s Differential Analyzer
模拟计算Nordsieck Differential Analyzer Close-UpNordsieck’s Differential Analyzer
模拟计算Packard Bell analog/hybrid system brochureThe Best of Both Worlds: Hybrid Computing
模拟计算Packard Bell HYCOMP brochureThe Best of Both Worlds: Hybrid Computing
模拟计算PlanimeterThe Road to Nordsieck’s Machine
模拟计算RDA ComponentBush’s Analog Solution
模拟计算REAC brochureAnalog Goes Electronic
模拟计算Richard FitzHugh at the National Institute of HealthChoosing Analog
模拟计算Richard Norberg (1922–2010)Nordsieck’s Differential Analyzer
模拟计算Rockefeller Differential AnalyzerBush’s Analog Solution
模拟计算Systron-Donner Analog ComputersAnalog On Your Team
模拟计算Telefunken RAT 700/2 analog computerAnalog On Your Team
模拟计算The first Manchester model differential analyzerBush’s Analog Solution
模拟计算The House on 91st StreetAnalog Goes Electronic
模拟计算The Lightning Empiricist, Issue No. 1Op-amp Circuit Design
模拟计算The Nordsieck Computer brochureNordsieck’s Differential Analyzer
模拟计算The UCLA Differential Analyzer: General Electric in 1947Bush’s Analog Solution
模拟计算The UCLA Differential Analyzer: The UCLA Mechanical BrainBush’s Analog Solution
模拟计算Tim Robinson: Integration and Differential EquationsChoosing Analog
模拟计算TR-48/DES-30 desk-top analog/hybrid computing system brochureThe Best of Both Worlds: Hybrid Computing
模拟计算TRICE advertisement from DatamationAnalog Computing…On Digital Machines
模拟计算TRICE computerAnalog Computing…On Digital Machines
模拟计算TRICE system brochureThe Best of Both Worlds: Hybrid Computing
模拟计算V-2 rocket launchA Key Component: The Operational Amplifier
模拟计算Vannevar Bush (1890–1974) with his differential analyzerBush’s Analog Solution
模拟计算Vannevar Bush's differential analyzerBush’s Analog Solution
模拟计算µA709 High Performance Operational Amplifier DatasheetOp-amp Circuit Design
计算机诞生"Model K" Adder (replica)George Stibitz
计算机诞生A Universe of Numbers: What is the Stored Program?The Stored Program
计算机诞生ACE Pilot ModelPilot ACE
计算机诞生Alan Turing (1912-1954)Pilot ACE
计算机诞生Artillery test at Aberdeen Proving GroundThe Minds Behind ENIAC
计算机诞生Atanasoff-Berry add-subtract module (reconstruction)Atanasoff-Berry Computer
计算机诞生Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC) (reconstruction)Atanasoff-Berry Computer
计算机诞生Bell Labs Model I Relay Calculator (Complex Number Calculator)George Stibitz
计算机诞生Clifford Berry (1918-1963)Atanasoff-Berry Computer
计算机诞生Close-up of the ABCAtanasoff-Berry Computer
计算机诞生Colossus narrow tape pulleyBreaking the Code
计算机诞生Colossus: Breaking the CodeBreaking the Code
计算机诞生CSIRAC moduleThe First Generation
计算机诞生CSIRAC paper tape (replica)The First Generation
计算机诞生DEUCE arithmetic logic elementPilot ACE
计算机诞生Early Innovators: George StibitzComputers Before Computers
计算机诞生Early Innovators: Howard AikenComputers Before Computers
计算机诞生Early Innovators: Konrad ZuseComputers Before Computers
计算机诞生EDSAC mercury memory tank coverEDSAC
计算机诞生ENIAC being set upENIAC
计算机诞生ENIAC being set upENIAC
计算机诞生ENIAC on a chipENIAC
计算机诞生ENIAC programmersENIAC
计算机诞生ENIAC publicity photoENIAC
计算机诞生ENIAC tube changeENIAC
计算机诞生ENIGMA encryption/decryption deviceBreaking the Code
计算机诞生First draft of a report on the EDVACMaking the Case
计算机诞生George Stibitz (1904-1995)George Stibitz
计算机诞生Grace Murray Hopper (1906-1992)Howard Aiken
计算机诞生Harry Huskey operates ENIACENIAC
计算机诞生Harry Huskey sits in front of the SWACA New Speed Record
计算机诞生Harvard Mark I/IBM ASCCHoward Aiken
计算机诞生Harvard Mark III magnetic headHoward Aiken
计算机诞生Harvard Mark III resistor/capacitor assemblyHoward Aiken
计算机诞生Harvard Mark IV 64-bit magnetic shift registerHoward Aiken
计算机诞生Herman Goldstine (1913-2004)The Minds Behind ENIAC
计算机诞生Howard Aiken (1900-1973)Howard Aiken
计算机诞生Institute for Advanced Study (IAS)The First Generation
计算机诞生J. Presper Eckert (1919-1995)The Minds Behind ENIAC
计算机诞生J. Presper Eckert: Little Pink LightsThe Minds Behind ENIAC
计算机诞生Jean Bartik: ENIAC's ProgrammersENIAC
计算机诞生John Brainerd: What is ENIAC?The Minds Behind ENIAC
计算机诞生John Mauchly (1907-1980)The Minds Behind ENIAC
计算机诞生John Mauchly: ENIAC ReliabilityThe Minds Behind ENIAC
计算机诞生John Vincent Atanasoff (1903-1995)Atanasoff-Berry Computer
计算机诞生John Vincent Atanasoff lecturing at the Computer Museum in BostonAtanasoff-Berry Computer
计算机诞生John von Neumann with the IAS ComputerThe First Generation
计算机诞生JOHNNIAC CPUJOHNNIAC
计算机诞生JOHNNIAC elapsed hour meter panelJOHNNIAC
计算机诞生JOHNNIAC goes to a museumJOHNNIAC
计算机诞生JOHNNIAC in operationJOHNNIAC
计算机诞生JOHNNIAC maintenance consoleJOHNNIAC
计算机诞生JOHNNIAC printerJOHNNIAC
计算机诞生JOHNNIAC user consoleJOHNNIAC
计算机诞生JOHNNIAC's core memoryJOHNNIAC
计算机诞生Kilburn Highest Factor RoutineThe Stored Program
计算机诞生Konrad Zuse (1910-1995)Konrad Zuse
计算机诞生Konrad Zuse in the construction of the Z1Konrad Zuse
计算机诞生Manchester Small Scale Experimental Machine ("Baby")The Stored Program
计算机诞生Maurice Wilkes and Bill Renwick in front of EDSACEDSAC
计算机诞生Moore School of Electrical EngineeringMaking the Case
计算机诞生NBS Western Automatic Computer (NBSWAC) signA New Speed Record
计算机诞生Nelson Lucas at a JOSS consoleJOHNNIAC
计算机诞生Original Z1Konrad Zuse
计算机诞生RAND campusJOHNNIAC
计算机诞生Researchers with MESM computerThe First Generation
计算机诞生Standards Eastern Automatic Computer (SEAC)A New Speed Record
计算机诞生SWAC logic moduleA New Speed Record
计算机诞生SWAC Williams Tube displayA New Speed Record
计算机诞生SWAC Williams-Kilburn tubeA New Speed Record
计算机诞生Teletype operator using the Complex Number CalculatorGeorge Stibitz
计算机诞生The IAS Computer FamilyThe First Generation
计算机诞生The New York Times ENIAC articleENIAC
计算机诞生Tom Kilburn discusses the Manchester Electronic BrainThe Stored Program
计算机诞生Undergraduates hold the ENIAC test chipENIAC
计算机诞生United States Patent 3,120,606 (ENIAC)Atanasoff-Berry Computer
计算机诞生Unveiling the ENIACThe Minds Behind ENIAC
计算机诞生Who Invented the Computer?Who Invented the Computer?
计算机诞生Williams-Kilburn Tube - Manchester Mark IThe Stored Program
计算机诞生Wrens operate a Colossus Mark IIBreaking the Code
计算机诞生Z1 binary gate (replica)Konrad Zuse
计算机诞生Zuse Z1 in living roomKonrad Zuse
早期计算机公司709 Data Processing System control panelIBM Catches Up
早期计算机公司Alan Turing inspects Ferranti Mark I consoleFerranti Computers
早期计算机公司Bank of America branchIBM Catches Up
早期计算机公司Bendix G-15From Airplane Parts to Computers: The Bendix G-15
早期计算机公司Bendix G-15 #100From Airplane Parts to Computers: The Bendix G-15
早期计算机公司Bendix G-15 advertisementFrom Airplane Parts to Computers: The Bendix G-15
早期计算机公司Bob Beck: Bendix G-15 UsersFrom Airplane Parts to Computers: The Bendix G-15
早期计算机公司Bureau of the Census UNIVACUNIVAC
早期计算机公司Burroughs E101A Question of Size: Small Computers for Single Users
早期计算机公司COBOL TombstoneHigher Level Languages
早期计算机公司Cover of the Communications of the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM)Higher Level Languages
早期计算机公司Douglas Aircraft assembly lineIBM Catches Up
早期计算机公司Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation (EMCC) Business PlanMaking UNIVAC a Business
早期计算机公司Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation (EMCC) EmployeesMaking UNIVAC a Business
早期计算机公司Elecom "50" advertisementA Question of Size: Small Computers for Single Users
早期计算机公司ElectroData Datatron 204 advertisementComputers for Sale
早期计算机公司Ferranti Manchester Universal ComputerFerranti Computers
早期计算机公司Ferranti Mercury advertisementComputers for Sale
早期计算机公司Flowcharting templateHigher Level Languages
早期计算机公司FORTRAN for Precedent buttonHigher Level Languages
早期计算机公司FORTRAN infograph automatic reference manualHigher Level Languages
早期计算机公司General Electric Appliance Park, Louisville, KYMaking UNIVAC a Business
早期计算机公司General Electric refrigerator assembly lineMaking UNIVAC a Business
早期计算机公司George Stibitz’s paper on the size of computersA Question of Size: Small Computers for Single Users
早期计算机公司Grace Hopper at Univac consoleHigher Level Languages
早期计算机公司Harry Huskey: Designing the Bendix G-15From Airplane Parts to Computers: The Bendix G-15
早期计算机公司I Pray in Fortran buttonHigher Level Languages
早期计算机公司IBM "Piercing the Unknown" advertisementIBM Catches Up
早期计算机公司IBM 305 RAMACIBM Catches Up
早期计算机公司IBM 650 Cathode Follower pluggable unitIBM Catches Up
早期计算机公司IBM 650 SystemIBM Catches Up
早期计算机公司IBM 701 assembly floorIBM Catches Up
早期计算机公司IBM 701 Electronic Data Processing SystemIBM Catches Up
早期计算机公司IBM 701 vacuum tube plug-in unitIBM Catches Up
早期计算机公司IBM 702 Data Processing SystemIBM Catches Up
早期计算机公司IBM 704 Electronic Data Processing SystemIBM Catches Up
早期计算机公司IBM 705 Data Processing MachineIBM Catches Up
早期计算机公司IBM 709 Data Processing SystemIBM Catches Up
早期计算机公司IBM blank coding forms - Flowcharting Worksheet, Diagramming and Charting WorksheetHigher Level Languages
早期计算机公司IBM Card Programmed Computer (CPC)IBM Catches Up
早期计算机公司IBM Electronics advertisementComputers for Sale
早期计算机公司IBM programmer drawing a flowchartHigher Level Languages
早期计算机公司J. Presper Eckert's resignation letter from the Moore SchoolMaking UNIVAC a Business
早期计算机公司John W. Ellison and UNIVACUNIVAC
早期计算机公司LEO I consoleFrom Cambridge to Café
早期计算机公司LEO II main console display tubeFrom Cambridge to Café
早期计算机公司LEO II paper tape reader controlFrom Cambridge to Café
早期计算机公司LEO Mark IFrom Cambridge to Café
早期计算机公司LEO, The Automatic OfficeFrom Cambridge to Café
早期计算机公司LGP-30 with operatorsLibrascope LGP-30
早期计算机公司Librascope General Precision LGP-30Librascope LGP-30
早期计算机公司Lyons tea shop along Piccadilly, LondonFrom Cambridge to Café
早期计算机公司Mark I* Logic DoorFerranti Computers
早期计算机公司Presper Eckert UNIVAC employee badgeThe Rise & Fall of UNIVAC
早期计算机公司Programming exampleHigher Level Languages
早期计算机公司Remington Rand UNIVAC 120 advertisementComputers for Sale
早期计算机公司Royal Precision LGP-30 advertisementLibrascope LGP-30
早期计算机公司Sperry UNIVAC logoThe Rise & Fall of UNIVAC
早期计算机公司Sperry-Rand UNIVAC 15-year tie tackThe Rise & Fall of UNIVAC
早期计算机公司Stantec ZEBRA advertisementComputers for Sale
早期计算机公司Superman's girlfriend Lois Lane, comic featuring UNIVAC on the coverUNIVAC Predicts an Eisenhower Win!
早期计算机公司Thomas Watson, Jr. (1914-1993)IBM Catches Up
早期计算机公司Type 706 Williams-Kilburn tube electrostatic memory prototypeIBM Catches Up
早期计算机公司Unisys Corporation logoThe Rise & Fall of UNIVAC
早期计算机公司UNIVAC 5-year tie pinThe Rise & Fall of UNIVAC
早期计算机公司UNIVAC I mercury memory tankUNIVAC
早期计算机公司UNIVAC I supervisory control consoleUNIVAC
早期计算机公司UNIVAC I Uniservo tape driveUNIVAC
早期计算机公司UNIVAC I vacuum tube chassisUNIVAC
早期计算机公司UNIVAC metal tapeUNIVAC
早期计算机公司UNIVAC predicts the election resultsUNIVAC Predicts an Eisenhower Win!
早期计算机公司UNIVAC service medalThe Rise & Fall of UNIVAC
早期计算机公司UNIVAC System advertisementMaking UNIVAC a Business
早期计算机公司UNIVAC System brochureMaking UNIVAC a Business
早期计算机公司UNIVAC system plaqueUNIVAC
早期计算机公司Walter Cronkite is shown the UNIVACUNIVAC Predicts an Eisenhower Win!
早期计算机公司Z22 electronischer programm-rechenautomatZuse Computers
早期计算机公司Z23 circuit boardZuse Computers
早期计算机公司Zuse KG in NeukirchenZuse Computers
早期计算机公司Zuse Z11A Question of Size: Small Computers for Single Users
早期计算机公司Zuse Z23 circuit boardZuse Computers
实时计算AN/FSQ-7 SAGE situation display consoleA SAGE Defense
实时计算Apollo Guidance Computer I/O module (prototype)Aiming for the Moon
实时计算Apollo Guidance Computer logic module (prototype)Aiming for the Moon
实时计算Apollo Guidance Computer with designer Eldon HallAiming for the Moon
实时计算ArcelorMittal control roomComputers in Control
实时计算B-17 Flying Fortress bomberReady. Aim. Fire.
实时计算Bob Everett: Whirlwind's ApplicationsWhirlwind: Preparing the Way for SAGE
实时计算Bombardier Thomas Ferebee with his Norden BombsightThe Norden Bombsight
实时计算Bosch ABS-2 ControllerReal-Time All the Time
实时计算Buzz Aldrin on the MoonAiming for the Moon
实时计算Cordis Sequicor and Gemini cardiac pacer demonstration modelReal-Time All the Time
实时计算Diagram of electronic components in a carReal-Time All the Time
实时计算Dr. C. Walton Lillehei inspects David Williams’ pacemakerReal-Time All the Time
实时计算Eldon Hall: Where was the Guidance Computer in the Apollo Spacecraft?Aiming for the Moon
实时计算F-16C jet fighter near Key West, FloridaThe Norden Bombsight
实时计算Foxboro FOX 1Computers in Control
实时计算GBU-16 Paveway II Laser Guided BombsThe Norden Bombsight
实时计算Gunners in nose turret of B-17 bomberThe Norden Bombsight
实时计算Hawk Missile AutopilotGuiding the Guided Missiles
实时计算Jay Forrester: Whirlwind's OriginsWhirlwind: Preparing the Way for SAGE
实时计算K-3 automatic computing gun sight for upper turretReady. Aim. Fire.
实时计算M9 Gun Director demonstration at Bell LabsReady. Aim. Fire.
实时计算Mercedes-Benz ABS testReal-Time All the Time
实时计算MIM-23 Hawk surface-to-air missileGuiding the Guided Missiles
实时计算Minuteman Missile Guidance ComputerGuiding the Guided Missiles
实时计算MIR on-board computer blockAiming for the Moon
实时计算NASA Apollo 11 HighlightsAiming for the Moon
实时计算Naval Tactical Data System (NTDS) CP-642/USQ-20(V)Managing the Threat
实时计算Norden Bombsight "Sight Head"The Norden Bombsight
实时计算NTDS Combat Information Center trainingManaging the Threat
实时计算Plan for SAGE Direction CenterHow Big Was SAGE?
实时计算Plan for SAGE Direction CenterHow Big Was SAGE?
实时计算Polaris Guidance System Mark 2, Model 1 exterior caseGuiding the Guided Missiles
实时计算President John F. Kennedy watching missile launchGuiding the Guided Missiles
实时计算RCA 110 advertisementComputers in Control
实时计算Richard Egan: Who Worked on the Apollo Guidance Computer?Aiming for the Moon
实时计算RW-300 brochureComputers in Control
实时计算SAGE building at McGuire Air Force BaseHow Big Was SAGE?
实时计算SAGE computer framesHow Big Was SAGE?
实时计算SAGE console filler knobs with handwritingA SAGE Defense
实时计算SAGE Core Memory ArrayA SAGE Defense
实时计算SAGE Logic UnitA SAGE Defense
实时计算SAGE Maintenance Console, Logic Unit and Intercept Technician ConsoleA SAGE Defense
实时计算SAGE modelHow Big Was SAGE?
实时计算SAGE RADARHow Big Was SAGE?
实时计算SAGE weapons director console with light gunA SAGE Defense
实时计算Texaco refinery, Port Arthur, TexasComputers in Control
实时计算The ADDAVERTER System. A system for the interconnection of large scale analog and digital computersComputers in Control
实时计算U.S. Navy fire control fundamentals training drawingReady. Aim. Fire.
实时计算USS King (DLG-10)Managing the Threat
实时计算V-2 rocket at Cuxhaven, GermanyGuiding the Guided Missiles
实时计算WhirlwindWhirlwind: Preparing the Way for SAGE
实时计算Whirlwind I computerWhirlwind: Preparing the Way for SAGE
实时计算Whirlwind rackWhirlwind: Preparing the Way for SAGE
实时计算Whirlwind: Making Electrons CountWhirlwind: Preparing the Way for SAGE
大型机A reflection on life with computersThe First Mainframes
大型机Airline agent and early Teleregister ticket terminalMainframes in Daily Life
大型机Amdahl 470V/6 Computer - CPUCopycats & Competitors
大型机Amdahl 470V/6 Computer - Multi-Chip Carrier (MCC)Copycats & Competitors
大型机Amdahl Computers brochureCopycats & Competitors
大型机American Airlines reservations centerMainframes in Daily Life
大型机An early cash-dispensing machine in LondonMainframes in Daily Life
大型机Apollo command module, partial viewDatabase and Transaction-Processing Programs
大型机Apollo launchDatabase and Transaction-Processing Programs
大型机Assembly of IBM 1401 computersThe First Mainframes
大型机Atlas Computer, (partial view)The First Mainframes
大型机AUTOFLOW brochureSoftware Becomes a Product
大型机Automatic Teller Machine (ATM) patent drawingsMainframes in Daily Life
大型机Barclays Bank's first cash-dispensing machineMainframes in Daily Life
大型机BASIC textbook, "Now YOU Can Program …"The Virtues of Sharing
大型机Bob Evans: Clearing the Way for System/360Re-Imagining the Computer
大型机Building the ORACLE computer CPUThe First Mainframes
大型机Burroughs B 2500 and B 3500 computers brochureCopycats & Competitors
大型机Burroughs B 5500 computer brochureThe First Mainframes
大型机CalComp Plotter advertisementIBM System/360
大型机Card from a Card-Capacitor Read-Only Store (CCROS), System/360 Model 30Inside System/360
大型机Cartoon diagram of a typical mainframe jobThe First Mainframes
大型机CDC 1604 Computer brochureCopycats & Competitors
大型机CDC 6600 installationCopycats & Competitors
大型机Children using timesharing terminalsThe Virtues of Sharing
大型机CompuServe Pajama Party advertisementThe Virtues of Sharing
大型机Dartmouth students working with BASICThe Virtues of Sharing
大型机Datapoint 3300 video terminalThe Virtues of Sharing
大型机Erich Bloch, IBM engineerInside System/360
大型机Excerpt from RCA's Decade of Difference: IBM Competitor's DreamsCopycats & Competitors
大型机Fred Brooks, IBM engineerInside System/360
大型机Fred Brooks, Jr.: Birth of the 360 ProjectRe-Imagining the Computer
大型机GE 235 computer brochureThe Virtues of Sharing
大型机Gene AmdahlInside System/360
大型机Gene Amdahl: The Amdahl Business PlanCopycats & Competitors
大型机General Electric 415 advertisementCopycats & Competitors
大型机General Electric timesharing at Dartmouth advertisementThe Virtues of Sharing
大型机Grand Central Station, New York CityIBM System/360
大型机Honeywell computers advertisementCopycats & Competitors
大型机IBM 7094 Computer – consoleThe First Mainframes
大型机IBM Card Capacitor Read-Only Store (CCROS)Inside System/360
大型机IBM computers family treeRe-Imagining the Computer
大型机IBM internal newsletterThe Virtues of Sharing
大型机IBM SLT manufacturing stepInside System/360
大型机IBM System/360 - IBM 2311 disk driveIBM System/360
大型机IBM System/360 and System/370 reference cardsInside System/360
大型机IBM System/360 computer brochureRe-Imagining the Computer
大型机IBM System/360 Model 30 computerIBM System/360
大型机IBM System/360 Model 65 ComputerIBM System/360
大型机IBM System/360 Principles of Operation, 1st editionInside System/360
大型机IBM Z900 Mainframe ComputerWhat Became of Mainframes?
大型机IDC Software Products brochureSoftware Becomes a Product
大型机IDMS-DC data communications software advertisementSoftware Becomes a Product
大型机IMS database system schematic from an early manualDatabase and Transaction-Processing Programs
大型机John G. Kemeny and Thomas E. Kurtz.The Virtues of Sharing
大型机Magnetic Core Plane, IBM System/360 Model 65Inside System/360
大型机Magnetic Core Stack, IBM System/360 Model 91Inside System/360
大型机Memorex 630 Disk Drive prototype at trade showIBM System/360
大型机NCR 315 computer advertisementCopycats & Competitors
大型机NEAC 2203 Computer – CPU, console and tape driveThe First Mainframes
大型机Operator at a Unimatic reservation terminalMainframes in Daily Life
大型机Pan American World Airways reservation officeMainframes in Daily Life
大型机Philco Transac S-2000 computer brochureThe First Mainframes
大型机Project GENIE researchers Paul Morton, Mel Pirtle and Wayne Lichtenberger (l-r)Timesharing as a Business
大型机Radcliffe students using a dormitory timesharing terminalThe Virtues of Sharing
大型机RCA 501 computer brochureThe First Mainframes
大型机RCA Spectra 70/45 computer brochureCopycats & Competitors
大型机SABRE promotional buttonMainframes in Daily Life
大型机SABRE, American Airlines' computerized reservation systemMainframes in Daily Life
大型机SABRE-labeled keyboardMainframes in Daily Life
大型机Schematic of Tymshare’s Tymnet networkTimesharing as a Business
大型机SDS 940 Computer - consoleTimesharing as a Business
大型机SMS/360 Systems Measurement Software brochureSoftware Becomes a Product
大型机Software Reference Manual for the IBM 704Software Becomes a Product
大型机Solid Logic Technology (SLT) circuit [Partially completed SLT module in Lucite block]Inside System/360
大型机Solid Logic Technology (SLT) module cardsInside System/360
大型机Solid Logic Technology (SLT) module cardsInside System/360
大型机Solid Logic Technology (SLT) module cardsInside System/360
大型机Solid Logic Technology (SLT) wafers [manufacturing-step examples]Inside System/360
大型机STABR: A Computer Program for Slope StabilitySoftware Becomes a Product
大型机Standard Modular System (SMS) card (logic module)Inside System/360
大型机Stewart Alsop eating his wordsWhat Became of Mainframes?
大型机Telex 4700 Tape Drive advertisementIBM System/360
大型机The mythical man-month : essays on software engineeringInside System/360
大型机The New Englander Motor HotelRe-Imagining the Computer
大型机TI Silent 700 terminalTimesharing as a Business
大型机Tillie the TellerMainframes in Daily Life
大型机Tom Kilburn and Atlas consoleThe First Mainframes
大型机Transformer Read-Only Storage (TROS) moduleInside System/360
大型机Tymshare co-founder Tom O’RourkeTimesharing as a Business
大型机Tymshare machine roomTimesharing as a Business
大型机Tymshare Prospectus paperweightTimesharing as a Business
大型机UNIVAC (Sperry Rand) Unimatic terminalMainframes in Daily Life
大型机Univac 9400 computer brochureCopycats & Competitors
大型机VAX 11/780 Computer – CPUWhat Became of Mainframes?
大型机Watson announcing the IBM System/360IBM System/360
大型机“Augment Yourself with Tymshare” buttonTimesharing as a Business
大型机“Steal from your friends” DECUS buttonSoftware Becomes a Product
存储1.8 inch MK5002MAL disk driveMagnetic Hard Disks
存储10 GB iPodMagnetic Hard Disks
存储1103 DRAM VAX memory boardSemiconductor Memory: Fast, Cheap, or Dense?
存储1311 disk storage driveMagnetic Hard Disks
存储1316 disk packMagnetic Hard Disks
存储16-pin DIP, MostekSemiconductor Memory: Fast, Cheap, or Dense?
存储18-pin DIP, IntelSemiconductor Memory: Fast, Cheap, or Dense?
存储2-inch silicon wafer for 4K DRAMsMOS DRAMs Replace Magnetic Core Arrays
存储200 mm (8-inch) silicon wafer for flash memoryMOS DRAMs Replace Magnetic Core Arrays
存储22-pin DIP, Texas InstrumentsSemiconductor Memory: Fast, Cheap, or Dense?
存储2315 disk cartridgeMagnetic Hard Disks
存储23FD “Minnow” flexible disk drive (prototype)Floppy Disks
存储3.5-inch floppy diskFloppy Disks
存储3.5-inch inch floppy disk driveFloppy Disks
存储300 mm (12-inch) silicon wafer for DRAMsMOS DRAMs Replace Magnetic Core Arrays
存储32K word magnetic core memory boardInnovative Ideas & Stepping Stones Part I
存储3340 data moduleMagnetic Hard Disks
存储4 Mbit bubble memory arrayInnovative Ideas & Stepping Stones Part I
存储5.25-inch floppy diskFloppy Disks
存储8-inch floppy diskFloppy Disks
存储Alan Shugart: About the Floppy DiskFloppy Disks
存储Albert Hoagland: RAMAC Innovation and LegacyThe First Disk Drive: RAMAC 350
存储An WangMagnetic Core Memory
存储Apollo 11 launchInnovative Ideas & Stepping Stones Part I
存储Apollo Guidance Computer rope memory wiringInnovative Ideas & Stepping Stones Part I
存储Atari game cartridge PCBInventing Memory, but Feeling Forgotten
存储Balanced Capacitor Read-Only Store (BCROS) for microprogramInnovative Ideas & Stepping Stones Part II
存储Bell Labs researchers with charge-coupled device (CCD)Innovative Ideas & Stepping Stones Part I
存储BIAX memory cores (10 megacycle)Magnetic Core Memory
存储Bryant large disk driveWho Used RAMAC?
存储Burroughs B5000Memory & Storage: Different Tasks, Different Technologies
存储Card Random Access Memory (CRAM)Innovative Ideas & Stepping Stones Part II
存储CDC 38500 CartridgeStoring Information
存储Commodore PETMagnetic Tape
存储Compact Disc (CD)Optical Storage
存储Control Data Corporation (CDC) disk drives advertisementMagnetic Hard Disks
存储Core memory boardMagnetic Core Memory
存储CP-344 hard disk driveMagnetic Hard Disks
存储D-395 digital cameraInnovative Ideas & Stepping Stones Part I
存储Data cassette (1.2MB)Magnetic Tape
存储DEC CompacTape cartridgeMagnetic Tape
存储DEC Head Disk Assembly (HDA)Magnetic Hard Disks
存储DEC VAX with Digital Linear Tape (DLT) driveMagnetic Tape
存储DECtape drive on PDP-11Magnetic Tape
存储DEUCE computerMagnetic Drums
存储Deuce delay line memoryDelay Lines
存储Deuce memory drumMagnetic Drums
存储Diablo Series 30 disk driveMagnetic Hard Disks
存储Digital Dark AgeDigital Dark Age
存储DVD+ROptical Storage
存储Early Engineering Research Associates (ERA) employeesMagnetic Drums
存储Early integrated circuit (IC) memoryMain Memory: The Winners
存储Elements of a Delay LineDelay Lines
存储Elements of a Williams-Kilburn TubeWilliams-Kilburn Tubes
存储English Electric DEUCEMagnetic Drums
存储ERA 1103Williams-Kilburn Tubes
存储ERA Magnetic Storage SystemsMagnetic Drums
存储F460DC Charge-Coupled Device (CCD) memory chipInnovative Ideas & Stepping Stones Part I
存储Fairchild Semiconductor 256-bit RAMBipolar RAMs in High Speed Applications
存储Fantasia LaserDiscOptical Storage
存储Ferranti SiriusDelay Lines
存储Ferranti Sirius magnetostrictive delay lineDelay Lines
存储FrankenRAID PrototypeDisk Storage systems
存储Frederick Viehe patentMagnetic Core Memory
存储Fujio MasuokaInventing Memory, but Feeling Forgotten
存储History of DatabasesDatabases
存储Hitachi 256K DRAM, 1985MOS DRAMs Replace Magnetic Core Arrays
存储How Does Virtual Memory Work?Memory & Storage: Different Tasks, Different Technologies
存储IBM 1301 disk storage unitMagnetic Hard Disks
存储IBM 1360 ("Cypress") photo-digital storage system moduleInnovative Ideas & Stepping Stones Part I
存储IBM 1360 Photodigital StoreInnovative Ideas & Stepping Stones Part I
存储IBM 2314 direct access storage facilityMagnetic Hard Disks
存储IBM 2321 Data Cell DriveInnovative Ideas & Stepping Stones Part II
存储IBM 305 RAMAC brochureMagnetic Hard Disks
存储IBM 305 RAMAC SystemMagnetic Hard Disks
存储IBM 3340 direct access storage facilityMagnetic Hard Disks
存储IBM 3480 magnetic tape subsystemMagnetic Tape
存储IBM 3480 tape cartridge (200 MB)Magnetic Tape
存储IBM 3850 mass storage systemMagnetic Tape
存储IBM 3850 Mass Storage System: honeycomb section with tapes (50 MB)Magnetic Tape
存储IBM 701Williams-Kilburn Tubes
存储IBM 726 magnetic tape driveMagnetic Tape
存储IBM Components Division 64-bit RAMBipolar RAMs in High Speed Applications
存储IBM Pavilion, 1958 World’s FairWho Used RAMAC?
存储IBM PC with floppy disk driveFloppy Disks
存储IBM PC/XTMagnetic Hard Disks
存储IBM representative speaking with visitorWho Used RAMAC?
存储IBM San Jose laboratoryWho Used RAMAC?
存储ILLIAC IV SRAM processor element memory (PEM)Semiconductor Memory: Fast, Cheap, or Dense?
存储ILLIAC-IV PEM LSI bipolar memory systemSemiconductor Memory: Fast, Cheap, or Dense?
存储Incan official with quipuPreserving Information
存储Intel 1103 1024-bit (1K) DRAMMOS DRAMs Replace Magnetic Core Arrays
存储Intel Bubble Memory advertisementInnovative Ideas & Stepping Stones Part I
存储Japanese punched cardPunched Cards & Paper Tape
存储Jay Forrester holding core memory planeMagnetic Core Memory
存储Jay Forrester notebook pageMagnetic Core Memory
存储JOHNNIAC in operationInnovative Ideas & Stepping Stones Part I
存储JOHNNIAC Selectron tubeInnovative Ideas & Stepping Stones Part I
存储Magnetic core memoryMain Memory: The Winners
存储Magnetic core sample brochureMagnetic Core Memory
存储Magnetic drumMagnetic Drums
存储Magnetic tape libraryStoring Information
存储Magnetophon tape recorderMagnetic Tape
存储MANIAC computer with covers removedWilliams-Kilburn Tubes
存储MANIAC Williams Tube memoryWilliams-Kilburn Tubes
存储Mass production of hard disk drives in MalaysiaMagnetic Hard Disks
存储Memory & Storage HierarchyMemory & Storage: Different Tasks, Different Technologies
存储Memory and Storage: Ever More DenseStoring Information
存储Mercury delay linesMain Memory
存储MicrodriveMagnetic Hard Disks
存储Micron 1G DRAMMOS DRAMs Replace Magnetic Core Arrays
存储Modern RAID arrayDisk Storage systems
存储Mostek 16K DRAMMOS DRAMs Replace Magnetic Core Arrays
存储Mostek 4096-bit (4K) DRAM, 1973MOS DRAMs Replace Magnetic Core Arrays
存储NCR 315 CRAM FileInnovative Ideas & Stepping Stones Part II
存储Nixdorf 820 minicomputerInnovative Ideas & Stepping Stones Part II
存储Nixdorf 820/23 rod cell memory boardInnovative Ideas & Stepping Stones Part II
存储Oracle founders celebrate their first anniversaryDatabases
存储Pac-Man computer game cartridgeInventing Memory, but Feeling Forgotten
存储Patrick Martin and StorageTek's PowderHorn tape libraryMagnetic Tape
存储Phonograph recording cylinderMagnetic Drums
存储Plated wire memoryInnovative Ideas & Stepping Stones Part II
存储Pouring magnetic oxide paintHow Did RAMAC Work?
存储Programmer standing beside punched cardsPunched Cards & Paper Tape
存储Prototype rope memory unitInnovative Ideas & Stepping Stones Part I
存储Punched paper tapeStoring Information
存储Rabinow disk patentThe First Disk Drive: RAMAC 350
存储Rabinow notched disk prototypeThe First Disk Drive: RAMAC 350
存储Radar technician at radar displayDelay Lines
存储RAMAC access armsHow Did RAMAC Work?
存储RAMAC actuator and disk stackThe First Disk Drive: RAMAC 350
存储RAMAC AdvertisementWho Used RAMAC?
存储RAMAC AssemblyWho Used RAMAC?
存储RAMAC diskHow Did RAMAC Work?
存储RAMAC read/write head, 1956How Did RAMAC Work?
存储RAMAC team leadersThe First Disk Drive: RAMAC 350
存储RAMAC test platformHow Did RAMAC Work?
存储Reel of magnetic tape (Brubeck)Storing Information
存储Remington Rand UNIVAC 1110Innovative Ideas & Stepping Stones Part II
存储Reproduction QuipuPreserving Information
存储Rey Johnson in front of RAMACThe First Disk Drive: RAMAC 350
存储Rio PMP300 MP3 playerInventing Memory, but Feeling Forgotten
存储SA-400 5.25-inch floppy disk driveFloppy Disks
存储SanDisk Memory Stick (1GB)Magnetic Hard Disks
存储Section of a 1301 diskMagnetic Hard Disks
存储Semiconductor Memory Type PropertiesSemiconductor Memory: Fast, Cheap, or Dense?
存储Signetics/Scientific Data Systems 8-bit RAMBipolar RAMs in High Speed Applications
存储Sperry Rand UNIVAC 1107 computerInnovative Ideas & Stepping Stones Part I
存储SSD module - SanDisk for IBMInventing Memory, but Feeling Forgotten
存储ST-506 5MB hard disk driveMagnetic Hard Disks
存储Tally sticksPreserving Information
存储Tandy TRS-80 Color Computer 1 advertisementSemiconductor Memory: Fast, Cheap, or Dense?
存储Tape reel (160 MB)Magnetic Tape
存储Tauschek patentMagnetic Drums
存储Technician with mercury delay linesDelay Lines
存储Test-scoring machine prototypeThe First Disk Drive: RAMAC 350
存储The Search at San JoseHow Did RAMAC Work?
存储Thin film memoryInnovative Ideas & Stepping Stones Part I
存储Thomas Edison with Ediphone dictating machineMagnetic Drums
存储Tom Kilburn and Freddie WilliamsWilliams-Kilburn Tubes
存储Transformer Read Only Storage (TROS) moduleInnovative Ideas & Stepping Stones Part I
存储TU56 DECTape magnetic tape driveMagnetic Tape
存储UNIVAC I delay line memory central supportDelay Lines
存储UNIVAC I SystemMagnetic Tape
存储UNIVAC metal tape reelMagnetic Tape
存储Victor 3900 calculator engineering prototypeSemiconductor Memory: Fast, Cheap, or Dense?
存储Wang core memory patentMagnetic Core Memory
存储Whirlwind core planeMagnetic Core Memory
存储Whirlwind magnetic core memory planeMagnetic Core Memory
存储Who used RAMAC?Who Used RAMAC?
存储Wilkes with EDSACDelay Lines
存储Williams-Kilburn tubeWilliams-Kilburn Tubes
存储Williams-Kilburn tube from an IBM 701 computerWilliams-Kilburn Tubes
存储Xerox AltoDisk Storage systems
存储Zip 100 driveFloppy Disks
存储Zip diskFloppy Disks
程序设计Don Knuth: The Art of Programming, Recovering from ErrorsA Programming Language for Everyone
程序设计Jamie Zawinski: The Art of Programming, It's About StyleA Programming Language for Everyone
程序设计The Art of Writing SoftwareA Programming Language for Everyone
超级计算机Atlas designer and British computer pioneer Tom Kilburn at the Manchester Atlas console on its last day of operationAtlas Does the Heavy Lifting
超级计算机Atlas logic moduleAtlas Does the Heavy Lifting
超级计算机Backplane wiring of the CDC 7600 supercomputerThe Need for Speed
超级计算机Beowulf pioneer Thomas Sterling in front of Caltech’s NæglingBroadening the Supercomputer Market
超级计算机BESM-6 supercomputerThe Roots of Supercomputing
超级计算机Cartoon suggesting the vast amounts of information ILLIAC IV can processParallel Processing
超级计算机CDC 6600 cordwood moduleCDC 6600’s Five Year Reign
超级计算机CDC 6600 operator console and quadrantCDC 6600’s Five Year Reign
超级计算机CFT77 Fortran manualSmaller and Faster: The Cray-2 and 3
超级计算机CM-1The Connection Machine
超级计算机Computer pioneer Tom Kilburn (standing) and two colleagues at the Ferranti Mark I computer consoleAtlas Does the Heavy Lifting
超级计算机Computer-enhanced image of IBM’s RoadrunnerEntering the Race
超级计算机Computer-generated rendering of the Cray-1 supercomputerThe Cray-1 Supercomputer
超级计算机Connection Machine architect Danny Hillis at Thinking Machines CorporationThe Connection Machine
超级计算机Connection Machine CM-1 heat flow studyThe Connection Machine
超级计算机Connection Machine CM-1 in operationThe Connection Machine
超级计算机Control Data Corporation, “Little Character” prototypeThe Father of Supercomputing
超级计算机Convex C-1The Cray-1 Supercomputer
超级计算机Cray X-MP/4 supercomputerThe Roots of Supercomputing
超级计算机Cray-1 Design NotebookThe Cray-1 Supercomputer
超级计算机Cray-1 diagramThe Need for Speed
超级计算机Cray-1 Logic Column cutawayThe Cray-1 Supercomputer
超级计算机Cray-1 worker smockCray Research, Inc.
超级计算机Cray-1AThe Cray-1 Supercomputer
超级计算机Cray-2 CPU and cooling towerSmaller and Faster: The Cray-2 and 3
超级计算机Cray-2 marketing brochureCray Research, Inc.
超级计算机Cray-2 system block diagramCray Research, Inc.
超级计算机Cray-3 CPU sectionSmaller and Faster: The Cray-2 and 3
超级计算机Designer Seymour Cray and the Cray-3Smaller and Faster: The Cray-2 and 3
超级计算机Early Beowulf clusterBroadening the Supercomputer Market
超级计算机Early block diagram of Stretch systemIBM Stretches its Capabilities
超级计算机Employees assembling a Cray backplaneThe Father of Supercomputing
超级计算机Gary Smaby: Cray and the Cold WarThe Father of Supercomputing
超级计算机Gordon Bell: Three Phases of SupercomputingThe Need for Speed
超级计算机IBM President Tom Watson, Jr.CDC 6600’s Five Year Reign
超级计算机ILLIAC IV Processing ElementParallel Processing
超级计算机Intel Touchstone Delta on cover of Popular Science magazineThe Personal SuperComputer
超级计算机Internal view of Cray-2Cray Research, Inc.
超级计算机Introducing IBM StretchIBM Stretches its Capabilities
超级计算机iPSC-1The Personal SuperComputer
超级计算机John von Neumann (left) and Institute for Advanced Study (IAS) Director J. Robert Oppenheimer in front of the IAS Computer in Princeton, New Jersey.Establishing a Pattern: Von Neumann at the IAS
超级计算机Lab Director Harold Brown (left) and hydrogen bomb developer Edward Teller at the Livermore Advanced Research Computer (LARC)Establishing a Pattern: Von Neumann at the IAS
超级计算机Los Alamos MANIAC computerEstablishing a Pattern: Von Neumann at the IAS
超级计算机Model 7030 (“Stretch”) operator consoleIBM Stretches its Capabilities
超级计算机Newsweek magazine cover showing U.S. concern over SputnikThe Roots of Supercomputing
超级计算机Operator at console of Los Alamos Stretch supercomputerIBM Stretches its Capabilities
超级计算机Operators at the ILLIAC IV at NASA Ames Research CenterParallel Processing
超级计算机Sample Fortran code fragment from a Cray supercomputerThe Need for Speed
超级计算机Seymour Cray (left) and Cray Research CEO John Rollwagen with a Cray-2 cooling modelSmaller and Faster: The Cray-2 and 3
超级计算机Seymour Cray in a meetingThe Father of Supercomputing
超级计算机Seymour Cray: The Challenge of Supercomputer DesignThe Father of Supercomputing
超级计算机Supercomputer designer Seymour Cray in front of his Cray-1 computerThe Cray-1 Supercomputer
超级计算机The Cray WayThe Cray-1 Supercomputer
超级计算机The Cray-1S Series of ComputersThe Cray-1 Supercomputer
超级计算机Touchstone DeltaThe Personal SuperComputer
超级计算机Typical CDC 1604 installationThe Father of Supercomputing
超级计算机Typical Civil Defense signThe Roots of Supercomputing
超级计算机U.S. atom bomb explosionThe Roots of Supercomputing
超级计算机Univac LARC being transported to Lawrence Livermore National LaboratoryEstablishing a Pattern: Von Neumann at the IAS
超级计算机View of Cray-2 showing circuit boardsCray Research, Inc.
超级计算机Watson Jr. memo about CDC 6600CDC 6600’s Five Year Reign
小型机Al West, co-founder of SEIPR1ME Time
小型机An WangWang Laboratories: From Success to Success to…
小型机Arnold Spielberg in GE newsletterComputer-in-a-Desk
小型机ASR-33 TeletypeThe HP Way
小型机Barbera StephensonDigital Equipment Corporation
小型机Bill Hewlett (l.) and Dave PackardThe HP Way
小型机Bill Hewlett on shop floorThe HP Way
小型机CDC-160AThe Birth of the Minicomputer?
小型机Central Bureau for Nuclear Measurements (CBNM) exteriorGeneral Automation
小型机Central Bureau for Nuclear Measurements (CBNM) Nuclear Radiation Lab, BelgiumGeneral Automation
小型机Christy & Thompson CompanyWang Laboratories: From Success to Success to…
小型机Computer Automation founders at their previous companyThe “Naked Mini” Company
小型机Control Data 160-A ComputerThe Birth of the Minicomputer?
小型机Data General Nova, serial #1Thwarted at DEC, Thriving at Data General
小型机DDP-116 advertisementThe Price is Right
小型机DDP-116 General Purpose ComputerThe Price is Right
小型机DEC Digital: From the BeginningDigital Equipment Corporation
小型机DEC PDP-8 computer in the rear of a VW bugDEC’s Blockbuster: The PDP-8
小型机DEC production lineDigital Equipment Corporation
小型机DEC – The MillDigital Equipment Corporation
小型机DECtapeA New Approach to Computers
小型机DEC’s business planDigital Equipment Corporation
小型机Dick PickDoing More With Less Hardware
小型机Docutel patentThe “Naked Mini” Company
小型机Edson de CastroDEC’s Blockbuster: The PDP-8
小型机Edson de Castro (l.), Herb Richman and Henry Burkhardt (r.)Thwarted at DEC, Thriving at Data General
小型机Excerpts from Hewlett Packard's "All the People"The HP Way
小型机Ferrara Meat Co., Inc., aerial view of 23 acre facilityIBM’s Small Business Computer
小型机Ferrara Meat Company, San Jose, CaliforniaIBM’s Small Business Computer
小型机First PDP-8 brochureDEC’s Blockbuster: The PDP-8
小型机Frankfurt Airport information signFrom Textiles to Computers
小型机GA 18/30General Automation
小型机GA industrial applications brochureGeneral Automation
小型机Gardner Denver wire wrap machineDEC’s Blockbuster: The PDP-8
小型机General Doriot (l.) and Ken OlsenDigital Equipment Corporation
小型机Gerber Scientific Model 75 plotterThe Price is Right
小型机Goldstone deep space antennaScientific Data Systems
小型机Gordon BellDEC’s Blockbuster: The PDP-8
小型机GT-40 brochure coverDEC’s Minis Get Bigger
小型机H316 General Purpose Digital Computer (Kitchen Computer)Bytes for Bites: The Kitchen Computer
小型机Harlan AndersonDigital Equipment Corporation
小型机Hewlett-Packard garageThe HP Way
小型机Honeywell brochureBytes for Bites: The Kitchen Computer
小型机HP 2114/15/16 brochure coverThe HP Way
小型机HP 2116The HP Way
小型机HP 2116BThe HP Way
小型机IBM 1130Computer-in-a-Desk
小型机IBM 1130 at Argonne National LaboratoryComputer-in-a-Desk
小型机IBM System/32IBM’s Small Business Computer
小型机IBM System/32 QUERY Language brochureIBM’s Small Business Computer
小型机JOY of UNIX buttonDEC’s Minis Get Bigger
小型机Ken OlsenDigital Equipment Corporation
小型机Ken Thompson and Dennis RitchieDEC’s Minis Get Bigger
小型机Krantz Elektronik manufacturingFrom Textiles to Computers
小型机LGP-30 with operatorsA New Approach to Computers
小型机LINC ComputerA New Approach to Computers
小型机LINCtapeA New Approach to Computers
小型机Lunar Lander advertisementDEC’s Minis Get Bigger
小型机Lunar Lander screenshotDEC’s Minis Get Bigger
小型机Max Palevsky (standing) and Robert Beck, in the labScientific Data Systems
小型机Microdata REALITY brochure coverDoing More With Less Hardware
小型机Microdata REALITY small business systemDoing More With Less Hardware
小型机Mulby M computerFrom Textiles to Computers
小型机Neiman-Marcus advertisementBytes for Bites: The Kitchen Computer
小型机Neiman-Marcus Christmas bookBytes for Bites: The Kitchen Computer
小型机New York Stock Exchange trading floorThe Birth of the Minicomputer?
小型机Nova Super NovaThwarted at DEC, Thriving at Data General
小型机PDC-808, serial #1The “Naked Mini” Company
小型机PDP-11 and the Atex SystemDEC’s Minis Get Bigger
小型机PDP-11 product line brochureDEC’s Minis Get Bigger
小型机PDP-11/20DEC’s Minis Get Bigger
小型机PDP-5 transistor/diode logic module (triple flip flop)DEC’s Blockbuster: The PDP-8
小型机PDP-8DEC’s Blockbuster: The PDP-8
小型机PDP-8 at Fenway Park, BostonDEC’s Blockbuster: The PDP-8
小型机PDP-8 at Massachusetts General HospitalDEC’s Blockbuster: The PDP-8
小型机PDP-8 family advertisementSmaller is Better
小型机PDP-8 transistor/diode logic module (triple flip flop)DEC’s Blockbuster: The PDP-8
小型机PDP-8/e brain surgery stationDEC’s Blockbuster: The PDP-8
小型机PDP-8/e in office settingDEC’s Blockbuster: The PDP-8
小型机PDP-8/e on surgery floorDEC’s Blockbuster: The PDP-8
小型机PDP-8/I IC logic moduleDEC’s Blockbuster: The PDP-8
小型机Prime 300/400PR1ME Time
小型机Prime Computer advertisementPR1ME Time
小型机Prohoroff’s Poultry FarmThwarted at DEC, Thriving at Data General
小型机Quotron Terminals information sheetThe Birth of the Minicomputer?
小型机Route 128, Boston’s circumferential highwayDigital Equipment Corporation
小型机Scientists assembling a LINCA New Approach to Computers
小型机SDS 920Scientific Data Systems
小型机Seymour CrayThe Birth of the Minicomputer?
小型机Stanford University's Bracewell ObservatoryThe HP Way
小型机UNIX license plateDEC’s Minis Get Bigger
小型机Unix programmer's manual for Bell Labs usersDEC’s Minis Get Bigger
小型机Wang 2200Wang Laboratories: From Success to Success to…
小型机Wang 2200 brochureWang Laboratories: From Success to Success to…
小型机Wes Clark demonstrating the LINC at Lincoln LabsA New Approach to Computers
小型机“Naked Mini” advertisementThe “Naked Mini” Company
数字逻辑"Intel Inside" advertisementIntel's Microprocessor
数字逻辑1,800,000,000 transistorsThe Next Generation: Semiconductors
数字逻辑1100 Checkmate Calculator Board, Litronix, 1971Tortoise of Transistors Wins the Race
数字逻辑1103 DRAM advertisementMemory Integrated Circuits
数字逻辑16-bit SP95 Bipolar SRAMMemory Integrated Circuits
数字逻辑16-pin plastic dual inline packagesFrom a Slice of Crystal to an IC Wafer
数字逻辑1N21A Silicon Microwave Rectifier, Western Electric, circa 1940The Next Generation: Semiconductors
数字逻辑2048-bit MOS DRAM, AT&T Bell Labs, circa 1972Memory Integrated Circuits
数字逻辑212 Logic Card, Philco Corporation, 1960Inventing the Transistor
数字逻辑256-bit Bipolar SRAM, Fairchild, 1971Memory Integrated Circuits
数字逻辑256K-bit DRAM, Hitachi, 1985Memory Integrated Circuits
数字逻辑288-bit CMOS SRAM, RCA, 1968Memory Integrated Circuits
数字逻辑2N1613 Transistor, Fairchild, 1959The Next Generation: Semiconductors
数字逻辑32K-bit EPROM, AMD, 1980Memory Integrated Circuits
数字逻辑6800 microprocessor, Motorola, 1974Microprocessors Flourish
数字逻辑7/8-inch silicon wafer, Shockley Semiconductor Lab., circa 1960Fairchild Semiconductor founders
数字逻辑80286 microprocessor, Intel, 1982Intel “x86” Family and the Microprocessor Wars
数字逻辑80386 microprocessor, Intel, 1985Intel “x86” Family and the Microprocessor Wars
数字逻辑80486 microprocessor, Intel, 1989Intel “x86” Family and the Microprocessor Wars
数字逻辑8080 microprocessor, Intel, 1974Microprocessors Flourish
数字逻辑8086 microprocessor, Intel, 1976Intel “x86” Family and the Microprocessor Wars
数字逻辑8088 microprocessor, Intel, 1979Intel “x86” Family and the Microprocessor Wars
数字逻辑A Mathematical Theory of CommunicationHow Do Digital Computers “Think”?
数字逻辑AD534, Four-Quadrant Precision Multiplier, Analog Devices, circa 1976Analog Integrated Circuits
数字逻辑AD571, 10-Bit Analog to Digital Converter, Analog Devices, 1978Analog Integrated Circuits
数字逻辑Aircraft controlsBillions of Hidden Microprocessors
数字逻辑Alpha microprocessor, DEC, 1993RISC: Is Simpler Better?
数字逻辑AM2901 “bit slice” microprocessor, AMD, 1975Intel “x86” Family and the Microprocessor Wars
数字逻辑Amana Touchmatic advertisementMicroprocessors Flourish
数字逻辑AMD Opteron 6100 microprocessorThe Next Generation: Semiconductors
数字逻辑Announcing four more miracles from Casio. Casio watch advertisementMicroprocessors Flourish
数字逻辑Another Way To Show Moore's "Law"Moore's Law
数字逻辑Apollo Guidance Computer Block 1 logic module prototypeICs Rocket to Success
数字逻辑Apollo spacecraftICs Rocket to Success
数字逻辑ARM 1 microprocessorRISC: Is Simpler Better?
数字逻辑AutomobilesBillions of Hidden Microprocessors
数字逻辑Bardeen & Brattain at Bell Telephone LaboratoriesInventing the Transistor
数字逻辑Berkeley RISC I die photographRISC: Is Simpler Better?
数字逻辑Burroughs B3500 computer systemICs Rocket to Success
数字逻辑Busicom 141-PF Printing Calculator Engineering Prototype, 1971Intel's Microprocessor
数字逻辑CDC 6600 module with 2N709 transistor, circa 1964Fairchild’s Approach: The Planar Process
数字逻辑Children listening to a crystal radioThe Next Generation: Semiconductors
数字逻辑Claude Shannon (1916-2001)How Do Digital Computers “Think”?
数字逻辑Commodore 64 advertisementMicroprocessors Flourish
数字逻辑Commodore PET home computer, 1977Microprocessors Flourish
数字逻辑Completed die photograph (QL8x12)Designing Integrated Circuits
数字逻辑Court Room Demonstration SystemThe Smart IC: Microprocessors
数字逻辑Crystal Radio DetectorThe Next Generation: Semiconductors
数字逻辑Data General Nova minicomputerICs Rocket to Success
数字逻辑Datamath 2500 calculator, TI, 1972Tortoise of Transistors Wins the Race
数字逻辑December 1975 Byte magazine coverMicroprocessors Flourish
数字逻辑Die assemblyFrom a Slice of Crystal to an IC Wafer
数字逻辑Diffusion furnaceSwitching to Silicon
数字逻辑Digital Watch with LCD Display, Microma Universal, circa 1973Tortoise of Transistors Wins the Race
数字逻辑Digital Watch with LED Display, Hamilton Watch, 1970Tortoise of Transistors Wins the Race
数字逻辑DTL (Diode Transistor Logic) module, Systems Engineering Laboratories, circa 1967ICs Rocket to Success
数字逻辑Dual Flip Flop 4209J System Building Block, DEC, 1964How Do Digital Computers “Think”?
数字逻辑Dudley A. Buck (1927-1959)The Integrated Circuit
数字逻辑ECL (Emitter Coupled Logic), CDC, circa 1975ICs Rocket to Success
数字逻辑Eldon C. Hall with an Apollo Guidance ComputerICs Rocket to Success
数字逻辑Electrical circuit schematicDesigning Integrated Circuits
数字逻辑Electronic toysBillions of Hidden Microprocessors
数字逻辑Elements of a Vacuum TubeDigital Machines
数字逻辑Elements of Bardeen and Brattain’s TransistorInventing the Transistor
数字逻辑Engineering workstationDesigning Integrated Circuits
数字逻辑ENIACDigital Machines
数字逻辑Entertainment systemsBillions of Hidden Microprocessors
数字逻辑Entrepreneurs NapkinThe Evolution of Silicon Valley
数字逻辑Experimental Logic Card, IBM, 1953Inventing the Transistor
数字逻辑Experimental MOS ICTortoise of Transistors Wins the Race
数字逻辑Fairchild co-founders in discussionFairchild’s Approach: The Planar Process
数字逻辑Fairchild Semiconductor Corporation foundersFairchild Semiconductor founders
数字逻辑Federico FagginIntel's Microprocessor
数字逻辑FI100 MOS transistorTortoise of Transistors Wins the Race
数字逻辑First experimental planar ICFairchild’s Approach: The Planar Process
数字逻辑First planar transistorThe Next Generation: Semiconductors
数字逻辑First production planar IC, 1960Fairchild’s Approach: The Planar Process
数字逻辑First transistor (replica), Bell Labs, 1947Inventing the Transistor
数字逻辑First transistor patentTortoise of Transistors Wins the Race
数字逻辑Flying wire type integrated circuit, TI, circa 1959The Integrated Circuit
数字逻辑Four layer diode in can, Shockley Semiconductor Lab., circa 1960Fairchild Semiconductor founders
数字逻辑Four layer photosensitive diode in can, Shockley Semiconductor Lab., circa 1960Fairchild Semiconductor founders
数字逻辑Four layer photosensitive diode in can, Shockley Semiconductor Lab., circa 1960Fairchild Semiconductor founders
数字逻辑Four-layer diodes, Shockley Semiconductor Lab., circa 1960Fairchild Semiconductor founders
数字逻辑Four-Phase Systems AL1 processor chipThe Smart IC: Microprocessors
数字逻辑From Sand to Silicon: Integrated Circuit Design and ManufacturingFrom a Slice of Crystal to an IC Wafer
数字逻辑Galileo spacecraftTortoise of Transistors Wins the Race
数字逻辑Gate Array from VAX 11/730 breadboard, DEC, circa 1978ICs Rocket to Success
数字逻辑Geoffrey Dummer (1909-2002)The Integrated Circuit
数字逻辑George Boole (1815-1864)How Do Digital Computers “Think”?
数字逻辑Gordon MooreMoore's Law
数字逻辑Graphics engine HD 3800Memory Integrated Circuits
数字逻辑Group photo of Berkeley students who worked on RISCRISC: Is Simpler Better?
数字逻辑Home appliancesBillions of Hidden Microprocessors
数字逻辑Ian Ross and Arthur D’AsaroThe Integrated Circuit
数字逻辑IBM MOD2 120-Gate Logic IC, TI, circa 1966ICs Rocket to Success
数字逻辑IBM Wire contact relays, 1944How Do Digital Computers “Think”?
数字逻辑IC assemblyFrom a Slice of Crystal to an IC Wafer
数字逻辑IC assemblyFrom a Slice of Crystal to an IC Wafer
数字逻辑IC Package - 418 leads, Intel, 2007Moore's Law
数字逻辑ILLIAC IV supercomputer processor element memoryMemory Integrated Circuits
数字逻辑Integrated electronic shift registerThe Integrated Circuit
数字逻辑Intel 4004 CPU MCS-4 microcomputer setIntel's Microprocessor
数字逻辑Intel 4004 initial package styleIntel's Microprocessor
数字逻辑Intel 8080A microprocessor mask design transparent overlaysDesigning Integrated Circuits
数字逻辑Intel advertisementIntel “x86” Family and the Microprocessor Wars
数字逻辑Intel buttonIntel's Microprocessor
数字逻辑Intel buttonIntel's Microprocessor
数字逻辑Intel buttonIntel's Microprocessor
数字逻辑Intel founders with Andrew GroveIntel's Microprocessor
数字逻辑Intel keychainIntel's Microprocessor
数字逻辑Intel Montecito wafer (close-up), 2009How Do Digital Computers “Think”?
数字逻辑Intel Pentium III microprocessor, 1999Intel “x86” Family and the Microprocessor Wars
数字逻辑Intel's first 106 employeesIntel's Microprocessor
数字逻辑Intel’s first microprocessor advertisementIntel's Microprocessor
数字逻辑Introduction to VLSI systemsDesigning Integrated Circuits
数字逻辑Jack Kilby (1923-2005)The Integrated Circuit
数字逻辑Jack Kilby's first solid circuitThe Integrated Circuit
数字逻辑Jack Kilby’s Notebook (replica)The Integrated Circuit
数字逻辑January 1975 Popular Electronics magazine coverMicroprocessors Flourish
数字逻辑July 1974 Radio Electronics magazine coverMicroprocessors Flourish
数字逻辑Karl Ferdinand Braun (1850-1918)The Next Generation: Semiconductors
数字逻辑Litton AN/ASA27 logic moduleICs Rocket to Success
数字逻辑LM10 Operational Amplifier, 1976Analog Integrated Circuits
数字逻辑Logic IC advertisementICs Rocket to Success
数字逻辑LT3080 Three -Terminal Voltage Regulator, Linear Technology Corp., 2007Analog Integrated Circuits
数字逻辑LT3080 three terminal voltage regulatorAnalog Integrated Circuits
数字逻辑M68000 microprocessor, Motorola, 1979Intel “x86” Family and the Microprocessor Wars
数字逻辑Ma Bell’s CookbookInventing the Transistor
数字逻辑Mainframe CAD systemDesigning Integrated Circuits
数字逻辑Marcian E. "Ted" Hoff, Jr.Intel's Microprocessor
数字逻辑Mark I relay calculatorDigital Machines
数字逻辑Marketing Wars: 3 Stages of WarIntel “x86” Family and the Microprocessor Wars
数字逻辑Marketing Wars: IBM PC DecisionIntel “x86” Family and the Microprocessor Wars
数字逻辑Marketing Wars: Intel x86Intel “x86” Family and the Microprocessor Wars
数字逻辑Marketing Wars: Motorola MC68000Intel “x86” Family and the Microprocessor Wars
数字逻辑Marketing Wars: Zilog Z8000Intel “x86” Family and the Microprocessor Wars
数字逻辑Masatoshi ShimaIntel's Microprocessor
数字逻辑Mask design check plotDesigning Integrated Circuits
数字逻辑Mask layout drawingDesigning Integrated Circuits
数字逻辑Mask Rubylith Layer for 4K DRAMDesigning Integrated Circuits
数字逻辑Metal deposition chamberFrom a Slice of Crystal to an IC Wafer
数字逻辑Michael Faraday (1791-1867)The Next Generation: Semiconductors
数字逻辑Micrologic Type “F” flip-flop IC, 1961Fairchild’s Approach: The Planar Process
数字逻辑Micrologic Type “G” Gate IC, Fairchild, 1962ICs Rocket to Success
数字逻辑Microprocessor Forum '96 folder with embedded chips in coverIntel “x86” Family and the Microprocessor Wars
数字逻辑Microprocessor Stories: Advanced Micro Devices AM 2901Intel “x86” Family and the Microprocessor Wars
数字逻辑Microprocessor Stories: Four-Phase Systems AL1The Smart IC: Microprocessors
数字逻辑Microprocessor Stories: Motorola Semiconductor MC 6800Intel “x86” Family and the Microprocessor Wars
数字逻辑Microprocessor Stories: Zilog Z80Intel “x86” Family and the Microprocessor Wars
数字逻辑Microprocessors 1971 to 1996Microprocessors Flourish
数字逻辑MicroSPARC I RISC CPU in carrierRISC: Is Simpler Better?
数字逻辑Minuteman II missileICs Rocket to Success
数字逻辑Minuteman II Missile ICs, TI, 1964ICs Rocket to Success
数字逻辑Minuteman II‘s IC's board replaced multiple Minuteman I transistor boardsICs Rocket to Success
数字逻辑Mobile phoneBillions of Hidden Microprocessors
数字逻辑Molecular Electronic Computer brochureICs Rocket to Success
数字逻辑Moore's "Law"Moore's Law
数字逻辑Morgan Sparks and Gordon TealInventing the Transistor
数字逻辑Morgan Sparks Commemorative Phone BoxInventing the Transistor
数字逻辑MOS shift register, 1964Tortoise of Transistors Wins the Race
数字逻辑MOS technology discussionTortoise of Transistors Wins the Race
数字逻辑MOS transistor patentTortoise of Transistors Wins the Race
数字逻辑NE555 timer and multivibrator, Signetics, 1971Analog Integrated Circuits
数字逻辑NE555 Timer, Signetics, 1971Analog Integrated Circuits
数字逻辑Nike + iPod Sport Kit, 2006RISC: Is Simpler Better?
数字逻辑Nobel Prize celebrationFairchild Semiconductor founders
数字逻辑One of the most sophisticated devices known to man...Mamiya ZE advertisementMicroprocessors Flourish
数字逻辑Only Amiga makes it possible. Commodore Amiga 500 advertisementMicroprocessors Flourish
数字逻辑Original Wheel from Walker’s Wagon Wheel, circa 1965The Evolution of Silicon Valley
数字逻辑Page from William Shockley's notebookInventing the Transistor
数字逻辑Panasonic introduces a cordless telephone...Panasonic advertisementMicroprocessors Flourish
数字逻辑PDP-1 computerInventing the Transistor
数字逻辑Pentium 4 microprocessor, Intel, 2000Intel “x86” Family and the Microprocessor Wars
数字逻辑Pentium microprocessor, Intel, 1993Intel “x86” Family and the Microprocessor Wars
数字逻辑Pentium Pro microprocessor, Intel, 1995Intel “x86” Family and the Microprocessor Wars
数字逻辑Photolithographic MasksFrom a Slice of Crystal to an IC Wafer
数字逻辑Planar IC patentFairchild’s Approach: The Planar Process
数字逻辑Planar process brochureFairchild’s Approach: The Planar Process
数字逻辑Planar process patentFairchild’s Approach: The Planar Process
数字逻辑Planar Transistor-Type 2N1613 (Sealed Package), Fairchild, 1960Fairchild’s Approach: The Planar Process
数字逻辑PlayStation, Sony, 1994RISC: Is Simpler Better?
数字逻辑PowerPC predecessor board, Apple Computer Inc., 1992RISC: Is Simpler Better?
数字逻辑Processed waferFrom a Slice of Crystal to an IC Wafer
数字逻辑Programmable Logic Device – Type 16L8, Monolithic Memories, 1978ICs Rocket to Success
数字逻辑Regency Model TR-1 Transistor Radio, 1954Inventing the Transistor
数字逻辑RISC Processors, MIPS, 1994-96RISC: Is Simpler Better?
数字逻辑Robert Noyce’s ID CardIntel's Microprocessor
数字逻辑Robert Widlar, National SemiconductorAnalog Integrated Circuits
数字逻辑Rubylith operatorsDesigning Integrated Circuits
数字逻辑Scribed dieFrom a Slice of Crystal to an IC Wafer
数字逻辑Section of the Wagon Wheel's bar, circa 1965The Evolution of Silicon Valley
数字逻辑Shockley four-layer diode brochureFairchild Semiconductor founders
数字逻辑Silicon crystal ingot growingFrom a Slice of Crystal to an IC Wafer
数字逻辑Silicon crystal latticeSwitching to Silicon
数字逻辑Silicon Grown-Junction Transistor –Type 905, Texas InstrumentsSwitching to Silicon
数字逻辑Silicon ingot (partial)From a Slice of Crystal to an IC Wafer
数字逻辑Silicon ingot productionSwitching to Silicon
数字逻辑Silicon ingot, Shockley Semiconductor Lab., circa 1960Fairchild Semiconductor founders
数字逻辑Silicon Mesa Transistor – Type 2N697, Fairchild, 1958Switching to Silicon
数字逻辑Silicon seed crystalSwitching to Silicon
数字逻辑Silicon Valley, USA, Electronic NewsThe Evolution of Silicon Valley
数字逻辑Silicon Wafer, Fairchild, 1958Fairchild’s Approach: The Planar Process
数字逻辑Silicon WafersSwitching to Silicon
数字逻辑Simon 1 relay logic machine, 1950Digital Machines
数字逻辑Single-crystal Silicon IngotSwitching to Silicon
数字逻辑Sir Jagadish Chandra Bose (1858-1937)The Next Generation: Semiconductors
数字逻辑Solid circuit sketch, Texas InstrumentsThe Integrated Circuit
数字逻辑Speak & Spell design teamMicroprocessors Flourish
数字逻辑Speak & Spell, TI, 1978Microprocessors Flourish
数字逻辑Stanley MazorIntel's Microprocessor
数字逻辑Star Wars Darth Vader musical birthday cardTortoise of Transistors Wins the Race
数字逻辑Start your child's musical education...Casio advertisementMicroprocessors Flourish
数字逻辑Stepping transistor counterThe Integrated Circuit
数字逻辑Tested waferFrom a Slice of Crystal to an IC Wafer
数字逻辑The "Manchester TC" transistor computerInventing the Transistor
数字逻辑The birth of Moore’s LawMoore's Law
数字逻辑The first planar IC, 1960Fairchild’s Approach: The Planar Process
数字逻辑The first transistorInventing the Transistor
数字逻辑The last thing I do with my Casio calculator is calculate. Casio advertisementMicroprocessors Flourish
数字逻辑The Silicon EngineThe Next Generation: Semiconductors
数字逻辑The Story of the Intel 4004Intel's Microprocessor
数字逻辑The world's first space-age word game! Scrabble sensor advertisementMicroprocessors Flourish
数字逻辑TI silicon transistor designSwitching to Silicon
数字逻辑TI silicon transistor design teamSwitching to Silicon
数字逻辑TMS 1000 4-Bit microcontroller, TI, 1976Microprocessors Flourish
数字逻辑TMS0119 Calculator Chip, TI, 1972Tortoise of Transistors Wins the Race
数字逻辑Transistor productionSwitching to Silicon
数字逻辑TTL (Transistor Transistor Logic) board, SD Systems, 1979ICs Rocket to Success
数字逻辑Type 154 Transistor, IBM, 1959Inventing the Transistor
数字逻辑Type 2N167 Transistor, General Electric, 1954Inventing the Transistor
数字逻辑Type 2N240 Transistor, Philco Corporation, 1955Inventing the Transistor
数字逻辑Type 2N404 Transistor, General Electric, 1957Inventing the Transistor
数字逻辑Type 2N67 transistor, Western Electric, 1954Inventing the Transistor
数字逻辑Type 502 “Solid Circuit,” Texas InstrumentsThe Integrated Circuit
数字逻辑Type OC76 Transistor, Mullard Ltd., circa 1958Inventing the Transistor
数字逻辑Type R212 Transistor, Texas Instruments, circa 1958Inventing the Transistor
数字逻辑Type WS294T IC, Westinghouse, 1968ICs Rocket to Success
数字逻辑U. S. Navy’s Grumman F-14 Tomcat fighterThe Smart IC: Microprocessors
数字逻辑Vacuum tube module, circa 1955How Do Digital Computers “Think”?
数字逻辑Views on the MOS stability problemTortoise of Transistors Wins the Race
数字逻辑Voice chess challenger advertisementMicroprocessors Flourish
数字逻辑Wafer - 0.875 in, circa 1962Moore's Law
数字逻辑Wafer - 1.25 in, circa 1965Moore's Law
数字逻辑Wafer - 1.5 in, circa 1967Moore's Law
数字逻辑Wafer - 2 in, circa 1970Moore's Law
数字逻辑Wafer - 200mm (approx 8 in), circa 2000Moore's Law
数字逻辑Wafer - 4 in, circa 1978Moore's Law
数字逻辑Wafer - 5 in, circa 1980Moore's Law
数字逻辑Wafer -150mm (approx 6 in), circa 1990Moore's Law
数字逻辑Wafer fabrication areaFrom a Slice of Crystal to an IC Wafer
数字逻辑Wafer fabrication areaFrom a Slice of Crystal to an IC Wafer
数字逻辑Wafer Scribing MachineFrom a Slice of Crystal to an IC Wafer
数字逻辑Wafers in a diffusion furnaceFrom a Slice of Crystal to an IC Wafer
数字逻辑Wagon Wheel poker chips, circa 1970The Evolution of Silicon Valley
数字逻辑Walkers Wagon Wheel, exteriorThe Evolution of Silicon Valley
数字逻辑Walkers Wagon Wheel, interiorThe Evolution of Silicon Valley
数字逻辑Weighing chemicalsFrom a Slice of Crystal to an IC Wafer
数字逻辑Whirlwind computer rackDigital Machines
数字逻辑William B. Shockley (1910-1989)Fairchild Semiconductor founders
数字逻辑Xeon waferIntel “x86” Family and the Microprocessor Wars
数字逻辑Z8000 microprocessor, Zilog, 1976Intel “x86” Family and the Microprocessor Wars
数字逻辑Zuse 1 binary gate (replica)Digital Machines
数字逻辑ZX Spectrum Microcomputer, Sinclair, 1982Microprocessors Flourish
数字逻辑µA 709 Operational Amplifier, Fairchild, 1965Analog Integrated Circuits
数字逻辑µA709 operational amplifier, Fairchild, 1965Analog Integrated Circuits
数字逻辑µA741 operational amplifier, 1968Analog Integrated Circuits
数字逻辑µA741 Operational Amplifier, Fairchild, 1968Analog Integrated Circuits
人工智能与机器人3620 LISP workstation CPUSolving the Riddle of AI
人工智能与机器人3620 LISP workstation keyboardSolving the Riddle of AI
人工智能与机器人3620 LISP workstation monitorSolving the Riddle of AI
人工智能与机器人3620 LISP workstation mouseSolving the Riddle of AI
人工智能与机器人ACMVI (Oblix) robotRobot Research
人工智能与机器人AI computerSolving the Riddle of AI
人工智能与机器人AIBO robotic dogThe Robots Around Us
人工智能与机器人Artificial IntelligenceSolving the Riddle of AI
人工智能与机器人AsimoThe Robots Around Us
人工智能与机器人Big Trak programmable toy vehicleThe Robots Around Us
人工智能与机器人Charles Rosen with ShakeyShakey
人工智能与机器人Components of ShakeyShakey
人工智能与机器人Compurobot programmable toy robotThe Robots Around Us
人工智能与机器人Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Lab (CSAIL)Solving the Riddle of AI
人工智能与机器人Cover of Karel Čapek’s R.U.R. (Rossum’s Universal Robots)Robots before Computers
人工智能与机器人Crackbot toy robotThe Robots Around Us
人工智能与机器人Deep BlueSolving the Riddle of AI
人工智能与机器人Early Shakey design drawingShakey
人工智能与机器人Elektro and Sparko at the World’s FairRobots before Computers
人工智能与机器人F.R.E.D. Andy toy robotThe Robots Around Us
人工智能与机器人FurbyThe Robots Around Us
人工智能与机器人George Devol robot arm patentAI in Action: Robotics
人工智能与机器人Grey Walter with ElsieAI in Action: Robotics
人工智能与机器人Hans Moravec at Carnegie Melon UniversityRobot Research
人工智能与机器人Hero Jr.The Robots Around Us
人工智能与机器人Hexapod walkerThe Robots Around Us
人工智能与机器人Hubot robotThe Robots Around Us
人工智能与机器人IBM 7535 manufacturing systemPutting Robots to Work
人工智能与机器人IBM Deep Blue Team (Joe Hoane, Joel Benjamin, Jerry Brody, Feng-Hsiung Hsu, C.J. Tan, and Murray Campbell)Solving the Riddle of AI
人工智能与机器人iRiM50 robotPutting Robots to Work
人工智能与机器人Isaac Asimov’s I, Robot cover by John BerkeyAI in Action: Robotics
人工智能与机器人Joseph Faber’s Talking MachineRobots before Computers
人工智能与机器人LISP Machines advertisementSolving the Riddle of AI
人工智能与机器人LMI LambdaSolving the Riddle of AI
人工智能与机器人Mars Rover patent drawingPutting Robots to Work
人工智能与机器人Marvin Minsky with a “Minsky Arm”Robot Research
人工智能与机器人MH-1 mechanical handPutting Robots to Work
人工智能与机器人Minsky tentacle armRobot Research
人工智能与机器人My Robot OMS-B toy robotThe Robots Around Us
人工智能与机器人Officer Mac educational robotThe Robots Around Us
人工智能与机器人Omnibot 2000The Robots Around Us
人工智能与机器人Original Shakey proposalShakey
人工智能与机器人Programmable toy robotThe Robots Around Us
人工智能与机器人R.U.R. (Rossum’s Universal Robots) stage design conceptRobots before Computers
人工智能与机器人Rancho ArmRobot Research
人工智能与机器人RB5X educational robotThe Robots Around Us
人工智能与机器人Robot insectsThe Robots Around Us
人工智能与机器人Robot Rebellion scene from R.U.R. (Rossum’s Universal Robots)Robots before Computers
人工智能与机器人Robot squirrel hunts his own foodAI in Action: Robotics
人工智能与机器人SEGA AI advertisementSolving the Riddle of AI
人工智能与机器人SEGA AI advertisementSolving the Riddle of AI
人工智能与机器人Sentry robotPutting Robots to Work
人工智能与机器人ShakeyShakey
人工智能与机器人Shakey teamShakey
人工智能与机器人Shigeo Hirose with his robotsRobot Research
人工智能与机器人SQUEE: The Robot SquirrelAI in Action: Robotics
人工智能与机器人SRI CentibotsRobot Research
人工智能与机器人Stanford CartRobot Research
人工智能与机器人Stanford Hydraulic ArmPutting Robots to Work
人工智能与机器人Sven Wahlstrom and Nils Nilsson with ShakeyShakey
人工智能与机器人Symbolics advertisementSolving the Riddle of AI
人工智能与机器人The BeastAI in Action: Robotics
人工智能与机器人The Beast at Johns Hopkins Applied Physics LabAI in Action: Robotics
人工智能与机器人The OrmRobot Research
人工智能与机器人The World of FurbyThe Robots Around Us
人工智能与机器人Tom Garvey and Helen Chan operate ShakeyShakey
人工智能与机器人Toy robotThe Robots Around Us
人工智能与机器人Toy robotThe Robots Around Us
人工智能与机器人Toy robotThe Robots Around Us
人工智能与机器人Unimate at General ElectricPutting Robots to Work
人工智能与机器人Verbot toy robotThe Robots Around Us
输入输出"Mousetop" mouse cover boxThe Mouse
输入输出1140 VariplotterThe Diversity of Output Devices
输入输出A Smalltalk-80 graphical user interface (GUI)Xerox Alto
输入输出Adele Goldberg at Xerox PARCXerox PARC
输入输出Adele Goldberg: About SmalltalkXerox Alto
输入输出Adele Goldberg: Bean Bags and PARC CultureXerox PARC
输入输出Airborne SAGE radarVideo Displays
输入输出Altair 8800Input Devices: Sometimes Clever, Sometimes Strange
输入输出Alto computerXerox Alto
输入输出Alto I CPU with monitor, mouse, keyboard and 5-key chording keysetXerox Alto
输入输出Alto Neptune file manager screenXerox Alto
输入输出Apple LaserWriter Plus laser printerLaser Printers
输入输出Apple Lisa 2 screenshotXerox PARC
输入输出Arabic-language keyboardKeyboards
输入输出BAT chording keyboardKeyboards
输入输出Bili Foot Mouse Programmable PedalThe Mouse
输入输出Bill English at the ARC officeThe Mouse
输入输出Braille display (prototype)Video Displays
输入输出BRAVO text editor screenXerox Alto
输入输出Calculator with Braille displayVideo Displays
输入输出Cedar program development environmentXerox Alto
输入输出Charles Simonyi: WYSIWYGXerox Alto
输入输出Children with an Alto computerXerox Alto
输入输出Chinese-language keyboardKeyboards
输入输出Chuck Thacker: Dover: Prints AnythingLaser Printers
输入输出Chuck Thacker: EARS: PARC's First Laser PrinterLaser Printers
输入输出Chuck Thacker: Why the Xerox Alto?Xerox Alto
输入输出Chuck Thacker: Xerox Altos in the White HouseXerox Alto
输入输出Circular monitor display for WhirlwindVideo Displays
输入输出Color Pivot video monitorVideo Displays
输入输出Color viewing helmet (prototype)The Diversity of Output Devices
输入输出Commodore 64 home computer keyboardPeople & Machines Communicating: Input and Output
输入输出CueCat barcode scannerInput Devices: Sometimes Clever, Sometimes Strange
输入输出Cyberpad Digital Notepad & Graphic TabletInput Devices: Sometimes Clever, Sometimes Strange
输入输出Daisy-wheel print head, blackThe Diversity of Output Devices
输入输出Daisy-wheel print head, silverThe Diversity of Output Devices
输入输出Data tabletInput Devices: Sometimes Clever, Sometimes Strange
输入输出DATAR trackballThe Mouse
输入输出Dorado Smalltalk screenXerox PARC
输入输出Dot matrix print headThe Diversity of Output Devices
输入输出Doug Engelbart mouse demonstrationThe Mouse
输入输出Doug Engelbart’s mouse prototypePeople & Machines Communicating: Input and Output
输入输出Dover laser printerLaser Printers
输入输出Drum-type line-printer print headThe Diversity of Output Devices
输入输出DVORAK KeyboardKeyboards
输入输出DX1 Keyboard with user-relocatable keysKeyboards
输入输出Engelbart mouse patent drawingsPeople & Machines Communicating: Input and Output
输入输出Ergonomic NLS keyboard consoleThe Mouse
输入输出Ethernet cable with two Isolan transceiversComputers Talking to Computers: Networking
输入输出Ethernet concept sketchComputers Talking to Computers: Networking
输入输出Focusing light penInput Devices: Sometimes Clever, Sometimes Strange
输入输出Gary StarkweatherLaser Printers
输入输出Gary Starkweather: The Eureka MomentLaser Printers
输入输出High-resolution trackballInput Devices: Sometimes Clever, Sometimes Strange
输入输出HP DeskJet 500 inkjet print headThe Diversity of Output Devices
输入输出HP LaserJet ("LaserJet Classic") laser printerLaser Printers
输入输出IBM 2250 graphics stationPeople & Machines Communicating: Input and Output
输入输出IBM 3800 Model 1 laser printerLaser Printers
输入输出IBM 581 plasma video display (prototype)Video Displays
输入输出Industrial joystickInput Devices: Sometimes Clever, Sometimes Strange
输入输出Industrial-duty trackballInput Devices: Sometimes Clever, Sometimes Strange
输入输出Ivan Sutherland demonstrating Sketchpad on the TX-2Video Displays
输入输出Ivan Sutherland’s experimental 3-D displayThe Diversity of Output Devices
输入输出Jouse Sip Puff mouse systemThe Mouse
输入输出Joystick for gaming applicationsInput Devices: Sometimes Clever, Sometimes Strange
输入输出Joystick for gaming applicationsInput Devices: Sometimes Clever, Sometimes Strange
输入输出Joystick for gaming applicationsInput Devices: Sometimes Clever, Sometimes Strange
输入输出Joystick for graphics applicationsInput Devices: Sometimes Clever, Sometimes Strange
输入输出Joystick for graphics applications (prototype)Input Devices: Sometimes Clever, Sometimes Strange
输入输出Keyboard “glove”People & Machines Communicating: Input and Output
输入输出KoalaPad Touch TabletInput Devices: Sometimes Clever, Sometimes Strange
输入输出Laser and optics assembly, SX-typeLaser Printers
输入输出Light pen and interface box (prototype)Video Displays
输入输出Line-printer hammer unitThe Diversity of Output Devices
输入输出Liveboard interactive video displayVideo Displays
输入输出LPS II light penInput Devices: Sometimes Clever, Sometimes Strange
输入输出Maltron keyboard arrangementPeople & Machines Communicating: Input and Output
输入输出Maltron left-handed keyboardKeyboards
输入输出Mouse interior mechanismThe Mouse
输入输出Multi-button mouseThe Mouse
输入输出MyTobii P10 non-target eye tracking systemInput Devices: Sometimes Clever, Sometimes Strange
输入输出Operating Alto workstationXerox Alto
输入输出Plasma video displayVideo Displays
输入输出PostScript lapel buttonLaser Printers
输入输出Print chainThe Diversity of Output Devices
输入输出Production-run three-button mouse, serial number 001The Mouse
输入输出Prototype Engelbart mouse (replica)The Mouse
输入输出QWERTY keyboardKeyboards
输入输出RKS 100-86 mouse ("Rollkugel")The Mouse
输入输出Rolling ball mouse for Alto computerThe Mouse
输入输出Ross keyboard actuatorPeople & Machines Communicating: Input and Output
输入输出SafeType™ ergonomic keyboardKeyboards
输入输出SAGE radar monitorsPeople & Machines Communicating: Input and Output
输入输出Scanman II rolling scannerInput Devices: Sometimes Clever, Sometimes Strange
输入输出SegaScope 3-D Glasses for the Sega Master SystemThe Diversity of Output Devices
输入输出Selectric "Golf Ball" print headThe Diversity of Output Devices
输入输出SIG-100 video terminal and mousePeople & Machines Communicating: Input and Output
输入输出Silicone rubber keyboardKeyboards
输入输出Smalltalk screenshotXerox Alto
输入输出Spaceball controllerInput Devices: Sometimes Clever, Sometimes Strange
输入输出Speech synthesizer moduleInput Devices: Sometimes Clever, Sometimes Strange
输入输出Spiral scannerVideo Displays
输入输出Tektronix 4012 Graphics TerminalVideo Displays
输入输出The PARC Computer Science Laboratory (CSL)Xerox PARC
输入输出The RAND StylusInput Devices: Sometimes Clever, Sometimes Strange
输入输出The RAND TabletInput Devices: Sometimes Clever, Sometimes Strange
输入输出The Sword of Damocles: Early head-mounted displayThe Diversity of Output Devices
输入输出Thimble-printing print headThe Diversity of Output Devices
输入输出Three-button Depraz mouseThe Mouse
输入输出TI-99/4 home computer color monitorVideo Displays
输入输出Trackball for gaming applicationsInput Devices: Sometimes Clever, Sometimes Strange
输入输出TRACKMAN trackballInput Devices: Sometimes Clever, Sometimes Strange
输入输出Typical video-monitor interfaceXerox Alto
输入输出Un-Roller controllersInput Devices: Sometimes Clever, Sometimes Strange
输入输出Virtual reality glovesInput Devices: Sometimes Clever, Sometimes Strange
输入输出VT04 Graphic Display system consoleVideo Displays
输入输出VT100 terminalVideo Displays
输入输出VT100 video terminal keyboardVideo Displays
输入输出Wooden optical mouseThe Mouse
输入输出Xerox PARCXerox PARC
输入输出Xerox PARC Scanning Laser Output Terminal (SLOT)Laser Printers
输入输出“Crystal Ball” graphical-display controllerInput Devices: Sometimes Clever, Sometimes Strange
图形、音乐与艺术AARON Paint SystemCan Computers Create?
图形、音乐与艺术Apollo DN550 posterGraphics Workstations
图形、音乐与艺术Apollo Domain DN100 workstationGraphics Workstations
图形、音乐与艺术Apple MIDI interfaceOne for All: MIDI Brings Compatibility
图形、音乐与艺术AutoCAD AutoDesk softwareComputer-Aided Design
图形、音乐与艺术AutoCAD demonstrationComputer-Aided Design
图形、音乐与艺术AutoCAD release 13Computer-Aided Design
图形、音乐与艺术AutoCAD rendering of a shipComputer-Aided Design
图形、音乐与艺术Casio DG-10 digital guitarProducing Music Electronically
图形、音乐与艺术Circuit board layoutComputer-Aided Design
图形、音乐与艺术Computers & Automation Computer Art EditorialCreating Art with Computers
图形、音乐与艺术Cubic LimitCreating Art with Computers
图形、音乐与艺术David Byrne in a Los Angeles music studioFrom Technology to “Techno”
图形、音乐与艺术David Evans and Ivan SutherlandThe Utah Teapot
图形、音乐与艺术DEC RTVAX 3300 in laboratory useGraphics Workstations
图形、音乐与艺术Drawings for Musical TelegraphProducing Music Electronically
图形、音乐与艺术Duran Duran's "Rio"From Technology to “Techno”
图形、音乐与艺术Early Silicon Graphics employee photoSilicon Graphics
图形、音乐与艺术Engineers building car model from clayComputerizing Car Design: The DAC-1
图形、音乐与艺术Ford automobile designersComputerizing Car Design: The DAC-1
图形、音乐与艺术Gaussian-QuadraticCreating Art with Computers
图形、音乐与艺术Golden Gate Bridge modeled in AutoCADComputer-Aided Design
图形、音乐与艺术Graphics TabletComputer-Aided Design
图形、音乐与艺术Harold Cohen and AARON: Ray Kurzweil interviews Harold Cohen about AARONCan Computers Create?
图形、音乐与艺术Harold Cohen at the Computer MuseumCan Computers Create?
图形、音乐与艺术Hood design sketchComputerizing Car Design: The DAC-1
图形、音乐与艺术House blueprintComputer-Aided Design
图形、音乐与艺术Howard WiseCreating Art with Computers
图形、音乐与艺术HP 7586B graphics plotterComputer-Aided Design
图形、音乐与艺术Hydraulic jack assemblyComputer-Aided Design
图形、音乐与艺术IBM 704 Electronic Data Processing SystemMax Mathews Makes MUSIC
图形、音乐与艺术Image from Ben Laposky's Oscillon 4Drawing with Computers
图形、音乐与艺术John Chowning at the Yamaha DX7Producing Music Electronically
图形、音乐与艺术John Chowning: FM SynthesisProducing Music Electronically
图形、音乐与艺术Keyboardist Alan Wilder of Depeche ModeMaking Music with Computers
图形、音乐与艺术KraftwerkFrom Technology to “Techno”
图形、音乐与艺术Lejaren Hiller at the University of IllinoisMaking Music with Computers
图形、音乐与艺术Line selectionComputerizing Car Design: The DAC-1
图形、音乐与艺术Mapping Sutherland’s VolkswagenThe Utah Teapot
图形、音乐与艺术Martin Newell’s drawing of the Utah TeapotThe Utah Teapot
图形、音乐与艺术Max Mathews with his Radio-BatonMax Mathews Makes MUSIC
图形、音乐与艺术Max Mathews with the Groove systemMax Mathews Makes MUSIC
图形、音乐与艺术Max Mathews: Computer Synthesis of SoundMax Mathews Makes MUSIC
图形、音乐与艺术Meeting on Gauguin's BeachCan Computers Create?
图形、音乐与艺术MIDI diagramOne for All: MIDI Brings Compatibility
图形、音乐与艺术Monsters, Inc. movie posterComputers Make Movies
图形、音乐与艺术MusicMate keyboardProducing Music Electronically
图形、音乐与艺术Operator working with early CAD programComputer-Aided Design
图形、音乐与艺术Pistol Grip AutoCAD drawingComputer-Aided Design
图形、音乐与艺术Pixar executives Ed Catmull, Steve Jobs and John LasseterComputers Make Movies
图形、音乐与艺术Pixar holiday cardComputers Make Movies
图形、音乐与艺术Pixar image computerComputers Make Movies
图形、音乐与艺术Poster from "2001: A Space Odyssey" (1969)Making Music with Computers
图形、音乐与艺术Professor Bright: Electronic Musical Teaching FriendProducing Music Electronically
图形、音乐与艺术Rendering of Sutherland’s VolkswagenThe Utah Teapot
图形、音乐与艺术Renderman Walking TeapotThe Utah Teapot
图形、音乐与艺术Roy “Futureman” Wooten with Synthaxe DrumitarOne for All: MIDI Brings Compatibility
图形、音乐与艺术Scott McNealy with a Sun workstationSUN Rises
图形、音乐与艺术Seiko DS-250 keyboard connected to an Amiga 1000One for All: MIDI Brings Compatibility
图形、音乐与艺术Silicon Graphics Indigo² Impact 10000 advertisementSilicon Graphics
图形、音乐与艺术Silicon Graphics Professional IRIS 4D/50GTSilicon Graphics
图形、音乐与艺术Silicon Graphics Professional IRIS Indigo workstation adSilicon Graphics
图形、音乐与艺术SpherelessCreating Art with Computers
图形、音乐与艺术Sun-1 keyboardSUN Rises
图形、音乐与艺术Sun-1 workstationSUN Rises
图形、音乐与艺术Sun-3 advertisementSUN Rises
图形、音乐与艺术Sun-3 Running CircuitTool v. 3.04SUN Rises
图形、音乐与艺术Suzanne Ciani with the Buchla Modular SynthesizerMaking Music with Computers
图形、音乐与艺术Switched-On Bach, by Wendy CarlosProducing Music Electronically
图形、音乐与艺术Synsonics drumsProducing Music Electronically
图形、音乐与艺术Telesis Drawing SystemComputer-Aided Design
图形、音乐与艺术The MuseProducing Music Electronically
图形、音乐与艺术The Utah TeapotThe Utah Teapot
图形、音乐与艺术Unleash the power of a SunSUN Rises
图形、音乐与艺术Vertical-Horizontal Number ThreeCreating Art with Computers
图形、音乐与艺术Winking Girl (“Nefertite” [sic])Don’t Write it. Draw It.
图形、音乐与艺术Wire-frame model of the Utah TeapotThe Utah Teapot
图形、音乐与艺术Wireframe image of sports car, 2 viewsDrawing with Computers
图形、音乐与艺术Wireframe image of sports car, one viewComputer-Aided Design
图形、音乐与艺术Wireframe model of Sutherland’s VolkswagenThe Utah Teapot
计算机游戏A gamer playing video game Time Crisis IIGenerating Fun and Fears
计算机游戏A screenshot from the original PC version of DoomGenerating Fun and Fears
计算机游戏Advertisement announcing Nintendo's Powerglove controllerNintendo Ups the Ante
计算机游戏Advertisement for the Game Boy versions of R-Type and Kung Fu MasterThe Incredible Shrinking Console
计算机游戏Al Alcorn: Atari in the BeginningAtari’s Roller-Coaster Ride
计算机游戏Allan Alcorn’s first Atari employee badgePong
计算机游戏Atari 2600 prototypeAtari’s Roller-Coaster Ride
计算机游戏Atari 2600 with "Combat" game cartridgeAtari’s Roller-Coaster Ride
计算机游戏Atari 5200 consoleAtari’s Roller-Coaster Ride
计算机游戏Atari 7800 ProSystem game consoleGallery of Games and Consoles
计算机游戏Atari founders Ted Dabney and Nolan Bushnell with Fred Marincic and Al AlcornAtari’s Roller-Coaster Ride
计算机游戏Atari game cartridges collageAtari’s Roller-Coaster Ride
计算机游戏Bally Astrocade Professional Arcade game consoleGallery of Games and Consoles
计算机游戏Ballyhoo computer gameStick to What You Know: Infocom and the Perils of Expansion
计算机游戏Boris Electronic Chess ComputerGallery of Games and Consoles
计算机游戏Breakout game cartridgeAtari’s Roller-Coaster Ride
计算机游戏Brown Box replicaGames On Your TV?
计算机游戏Bureaucracy computer gameStick to What You Know: Infocom and the Perils of Expansion
计算机游戏Channel F Video Entertainment SystemGallery of Games and Consoles
计算机游戏Close-up of the Tennis-for-Two screenInventing a New Medium
计算机游戏Coleco Telstar Alpha advertisementPong
计算机游戏ColecoVision Video Game SystemGallery of Games and Consoles
计算机游戏Computer researcher Donald Davies and his Naughts-and-Crosses machineInventing a New Medium
计算机游戏Computer Space video gameGallery of Games and Consoles
计算机游戏Cornerstone posterStick to What You Know: Infocom and the Perils of Expansion
计算机游戏Cover of the first issue of Nintendo PowerNintendo Ups the Ante
计算机游戏Darkwing Duck Nintendo Entertainment System game cartridgeNintendo Ups the Ante
计算机游戏Deadline computer gameStick to What You Know: Infocom and the Perils of Expansion
计算机游戏Defender game cartridgeAtari’s Roller-Coaster Ride
计算机游戏Donkey Kong Table GameGallery of Games and Consoles
计算机游戏Doom II boxGenerating Fun and Fears
计算机游戏Doom movie posterMore Power, More Players
计算机游戏Doom video game posterMore Power, More Players
计算机游戏Double Dragon movie posterMore Power, More Players
计算机游戏Dr. Mario Nintendo Entertainment System game cartridgeNintendo Ups the Ante
计算机游戏Dreamcast video game systemGallery of Games and Consoles
计算机游戏Electronic Football II gameGallery of Games and Consoles
计算机游戏Electronic GrandMaster chess gameGallery of Games and Consoles
计算机游戏Exodus: Ultima IIIThe More the Merrier?
计算机游戏Game BoyThe Incredible Shrinking Console
计算机游戏Genesis system consoleGallery of Games and Consoles
计算机游戏Gran Turismo 2 PlayStation video gameSony Bets on PlayStation
计算机游戏GtkRadiant Level EditorGenerating Fun and Fears
计算机游戏Halo Master Chief statueGenerating Fun and Fears
计算机游戏Hand-drawn map of DungeonStick to What You Know: Infocom and the Perils of Expansion
计算机游戏Haunted House overlay for Odyssey game systemGames On Your TV?
计算机游戏Head to Head FootballGallery of Games and Consoles
计算机游戏Jaguar video game systemGallery of Games and Consoles
计算机游戏January 8th, 1984 New York Times article on Video Game CrashPlay Becomes Profitable
计算机游戏Japanese flyer for Namco's Pac-Man with original name: PuckmanPlay Becomes Profitable
计算机游戏Lara Croft: Tomb Raider movie posterMore Power, More Players
计算机游戏Leather Goddesses of Phobos computer gameStick to What You Know: Infocom and the Perils of Expansion
计算机游戏Listing of the source code for AdventureGames On Your TV?
计算机游戏Madden '99 coverSony Bets on PlayStation
计算机游戏Magnavox Odyssey Simon Says game overlayInventing a New Medium
计算机游戏Map of Colossal CaveGames On Your TV?
计算机游戏Merlin: The Electronic Wizard GameGallery of Games and Consoles
计算机游戏Metroid game cartridgeNintendo Ups the Ante
计算机游戏Millipede Nintendo Entertainment System game cartridgeNintendo Ups the Ante
计算机游戏Missile Command game cartridgeAtari’s Roller-Coaster Ride
计算机游戏Muppet Learning Keys keyboardGallery of Games and Consoles
计算机游戏New York Times Article examining link between video games and school shootingsGenerating Fun and Fears
计算机游戏Nintendo 64 video game systemGallery of Games and Consoles
计算机游戏Nintendo Entertainment SystemNintendo Ups the Ante
计算机游戏Odyssey and Brown Box designer Ralph Baer in his labGames On Your TV?
计算机游戏Odyssey video game systemGames On Your TV?
计算机游戏Opening screen for the original Nintendo Legend of ZeldaInventing a New Medium
计算机游戏Pac-Man Fever AlbumPlay Becomes Profitable
计算机游戏Pac-Man game cartridgePlay Becomes Profitable
计算机游戏Pac-Man T-shirtPlay Becomes Profitable
计算机游戏Pac-Man tabletop gamePlay Becomes Profitable
计算机游戏Pinball Nintendo Entertainment System game cartridgeNintendo Ups the Ante
计算机游戏Pippin game systemGallery of Games and Consoles
计算机游戏PlayStation video gameSony Bets on PlayStation
计算机游戏Plundered Hearts computer gameStick to What You Know: Infocom and the Perils of Expansion
计算机游戏Pokemon: The First Movie posterMore Power, More Players
计算机游戏Pong prototypePong
计算机游戏Pong video game advertisementPong
计算机游戏Quarterstaff: The Tomb of Setmoth computer gameStick to What You Know: Infocom and the Perils of Expansion
计算机游戏Quiz Wiz: The Computer AnswerGameGallery of Games and Consoles
计算机游戏Ralph Baer and his Innovations: The Story of OdysseyGames On Your TV?
计算机游戏Ralph Baer with his inventionsGames On Your TV?
计算机游戏Ralph Baer's original drawings for the Brown BoxGames On Your TV?
计算机游戏Ready 2 Rumble Boxing PlayStation video gameSony Bets on PlayStation
计算机游戏Screenshot from Game Boy version of TetrisThe Incredible Shrinking Console
计算机游戏Screenshot from Gran TurismoSony Bets on PlayStation
计算机游戏Screenshot from Infocom’s Hitchhiker’s Guide to the GalaxyStick to What You Know: Infocom and the Perils of Expansion
计算机游戏Screenshot from The SimsKeeping it Real(ish): The Sims
计算机游戏Screenshot from Ultima On-LineThe More the Merrier?
计算机游戏Sega Master System Power BaseGallery of Games and Consoles
计算机游戏Sega Saturn video game systemGallery of Games and Consoles
计算机游戏Senator Orrin Hatch holding a Doom II box on Larry King LiveGenerating Fun and Fears
计算机游戏Sensory Chess ChallengerGallery of Games and Consoles
计算机游戏Shigeru Miyamoto with his most enduring creation: MarioNintendo Ups the Ante
计算机游戏Shrek Treasure Hunt PlayStation video gameSony Bets on PlayStation
计算机游戏Sim City boxKeeping it Real(ish): The Sims
计算机游戏SimCity Graphics: Graphics Set 1Keeping it Real(ish): The Sims
计算机游戏SimCity2000: The Ultimate City SimulatorKeeping it Real(ish): The Sims
计算机游戏SimEarthKeeping it Real(ish): The Sims
计算机游戏SimIsle: Missions in the rainforestKeeping it Real(ish): The Sims
计算机游戏Space Invaders game cartridgeAtari’s Roller-Coaster Ride
计算机游戏Space Invaders manual coverAtari’s Roller-Coaster Ride
计算机游戏Speak & SpellGallery of Games and Consoles
计算机游戏Story of SpaceWar!SpaceWar!
计算机游戏Super Mario Bros and Duck Hunt game labelNintendo Ups the Ante
计算机游戏Super Mario Bros. and Duck Hunt combination Nintendo Entertainment System game cartridgeNintendo Ups the Ante
计算机游戏Super Mario Brothers movie posterMore Power, More Players
计算机游戏Super Mario Brothers Pinball GameGallery of Games and Consoles
计算机游戏Super Nintendo Entertainment SystemGallery of Games and Consoles
计算机游戏Super Pong gamePong
计算机游戏Telegames advertisement from Sears Christmas Wish BookPong
计算机游戏Telstar AlphaPong
计算机游戏Tempest cabinet drawingAtari’s Roller-Coaster Ride
计算机游戏Tetris designer Alexey Pajitnov and son holding early copies of the PC version of TetrisThe Incredible Shrinking Console
计算机游戏Tetris game cartridgeNintendo Ups the Ante
计算机游戏The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy computer gameStick to What You Know: Infocom and the Perils of Expansion
计算机游戏The introduction screen to Will Crowther’s AdventureGames On Your TV?
计算机游戏The Legend of Zelda game cartridgeNintendo Ups the Ante
计算机游戏The Merlin analog computer at Brookhaven National LaboratoryInventing a New Medium
计算机游戏The playing field for Namco's Pac-ManPlay Becomes Profitable
计算机游戏Title: Children playing Famicom video games in JapanNintendo Ups the Ante
计算机游戏Tomb Raider PlayStation video gameSony Bets on PlayStation
计算机游戏Tomytronic 3-D Sky Attack gameGallery of Games and Consoles
计算机游戏Tony Hawk's Pro Skater PlayStation video gameSony Bets on PlayStation
计算机游戏Tournament 2000 Game systemGallery of Games and Consoles
计算机游戏Toys "R" Us Store in Sunnyvale, CAAtari’s Roller-Coaster Ride
计算机游戏Ultima software boxesThe More the Merrier?
计算机游戏Ultima V advertisementThe More the Merrier?
计算机游戏Vectrex Game ConsoleGallery of Games and Consoles
计算机游戏Video JoggerGallery of Games and Consoles
计算机游戏Video Pinball game cartridgeAtari’s Roller-Coaster Ride
计算机游戏Wheel of Fortune Family Edition Nintendo Entertainment System game cartridgeNintendo Ups the Ante
计算机游戏Will Wright: Probability Space, Possibility SpaceKeeping it Real(ish): The Sims
计算机游戏Wolfenstein 3D screenshotInventing a New Medium
计算机游戏Xbox Video Game SystemGallery of Games and Consoles
计算机游戏Zork I: The Great Underground Empire computer gameStick to What You Know: Infocom and the Perils of Expansion
个人计算机1040ST Computer SystemComputers for Everybody
个人计算机8008 Homebrew MicrocomputerDoing It Yourself
个人计算机Adobe Illustrator, first versionDesktop Publishing
个人计算机After Dark screen saversSuccess + Success: Software Applications and Windows
个人计算机Aldus PageMakerDesktop Publishing
个人计算机Altair 8800The Homebrew Computer Club
个人计算机Altair BASIC Interpreter Source TapeThe Homebrew Computer Club
个人计算机Amiga 1000 CPUComputers for Everybody
个人计算机Apple Computer advertisementComputers for Everybody
个人计算机Apple IIComputers for Everybody
个人计算机Apple IIc advertisementWho Needs a Personal Computer?
个人计算机Apple IIe running VisiCalcSoftware: Putting PCs to Work
个人计算机Apple iMac posterPromoting PCs
个人计算机Apple Lisa 1Saying it With Pictures
个人计算机Apple MacintoshSaying it With Pictures
个人计算机Apple Macintosh advertisementSaying it With Pictures
个人计算机Apple-1The Homebrew Computer Club
个人计算机Apple-1 operation manualThe Apple II
个人计算机Ashton-Tate mugPromoting PCs
个人计算机Atari 800Computers for Everybody
个人计算机Atari 800 advertisementComputers for Everybody
个人计算机Atari 800 joystickComputers for Everybody
个人计算机Back to Basics Accounting SystemSuccess + Success: Software Applications and Windows
个人计算机BBC Microcomputer SystemComputers for Everybody
个人计算机Brøderbund’s The Print ShopSuccess + Success: Software Applications and Windows
个人计算机Columbia personal computerSend in the Clones
个人计算机Commodore 64Computers for Everybody
个人计算机Commodore 64 advertisementComputers for Everybody
个人计算机Commodore PETComputers for Everybody
个人计算机Commodore VIC-20Computers for Everybody
个人计算机Commuter buttonPromoting PCs
个人计算机Compaq Deskpro 286Send in the Clones
个人计算机Compaq PortableSend in the Clones
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个人计算机CorelDRAW!Success + Success: Software Applications and Windows
个人计算机COSMAC ELFDoing It Yourself
个人计算机Cover of January 1975 issue of Popular ElectronicsThe Homebrew Computer Club
个人计算机CP/M designer Gary Kildall at the first West Coast Computer FaireWhat Was The First PC?
个人计算机CPC 464 MicrocomputerComputers for Everybody
个人计算机Created by man. The affordable computer.Promoting PCs
个人计算机Cromemco System 3 ComputerWhat Was The First PC?
个人计算机Dan FylstraSoftware: Putting PCs to Work
个人计算机Don Estridge (1937-1985)The IBM PC
个人计算机Dragon 32K Personal ComputerComputers for Everybody
个人计算机Eagle personal computerSend in the Clones
个人计算机Early Macintosh screenshotSaying it With Pictures
个人计算机Early MicroSoft employeesSoftware: Putting PCs to Work
个人计算机Early personal computersDoing It Yourself
个人计算机Ed Roberts with Altair 8800The Homebrew Computer Club
个人计算机EDUC-8 kit computerDoing It Yourself
个人计算机EPA Micro-68What Was The First PC?
个人计算机First Computers: Forrest Mims: The Altair 8800The Homebrew Computer Club
个人计算机First issue of the Homebrew Computer Club newsletterThe Homebrew Computer Club
个人计算机Franklin Ace 100Send in the Clones
个人计算机Franklin ACE 100 advertisementSend in the Clones
个人计算机Heathkit H8Doing It Yourself
个人计算机Hit Bit Home ComputerComputers for Everybody
个人计算机Homebrew Computer Club meetingThe Homebrew Computer Club
个人计算机Homebrew Computer Club newsletter, Volume 2, Issue 14, coverThe Homebrew Computer Club
个人计算机Homebrew Computer Club newsletter, Volume 2, Issue 14, p.7Doing It Yourself
个人计算机Hyperion computer systemSend in the Clones
个人计算机IBM PC-compatible portable prototypeSend in the Clones
个人计算机IBM Personal Computer advertisementWho Needs a Personal Computer?
个人计算机IBM Personal Computer advertisementThe IBM PC
个人计算机IBM Personal Computer buttonPromoting PCs
个人计算机IBM Personal Computer CPUThe IBM PC
个人计算机IBM Personal System/2 (PS/2)Send in the Clones
个人计算机IMSAI 8080What Was The First PC?
个人计算机International Micro Systems buttonPromoting PCs
个人计算机John Blankenbaker with the Kenbak-1 computerWhat Was The First PC?
个人计算机John WarnockDesktop Publishing
个人计算机Kenbak-1What Was The First PC?
个人计算机Kenbak-1 advertisementWhat Was The First PC?
个人计算机KIM-1Doing It Yourself
个人计算机Kookaburra Portable ComputerComputers for Everybody
个人计算机Len Shustek, Lee Felsenstein: The Homebrew Computer ClubThe Homebrew Computer Club
个人计算机Linus Torvalds with Linux penguinLinux
个人计算机Linux hard hatLinux
个人计算机Luxor Datorer ABC 802 computerComputers for Everybody
个人计算机Macintosh buttonPromoting PCs
个人计算机Mark-8Doing It Yourself
个人计算机MASTER personal computerSend in the Clones
个人计算机MicralWhat Was The First PC?
个人计算机Micral C design teamWhat Was The First PC?
个人计算机Microsoft SuperTeam t-shirtPromoting PCs
个人计算机Microsoft Windows 95 launch, New York CitySaying it With Pictures
个人计算机Microsoft Windows Operating Environment, Version 1.0Software: Putting PCs to Work
个人计算机MPC buttonPromoting PCs
个人计算机Ohio Scientific Model 600Doing It Yourself
个人计算机Olympian-S ComputerSend in the Clones
个人计算机Osborne 1 advertisementPromoting PCs
个人计算机Osborne frisbeePromoting PCs
个人计算机Outbound Notebook SystemSend in the Clones
个人计算机Paul Allen and Bill GatesThe Homebrew Computer Club
个人计算机PC Software Timeline: Bill Atkinson, Andy Herzfeld: About MacPaintSoftware: Putting PCs to Work
个人计算机PC Software Timeline: Bob Frankston: The VisiCalc GridSoftware: Putting PCs to Work
个人计算机PC Software Timeline: Dan Bricklin: Creating a Better CalculatorSoftware: Putting PCs to Work
个人计算机PC Software Timeline: Linus Torvalds: First Version of LinuxLinux
个人计算机Radio Shack TRS-80 advertisementComputers for Everybody
个人计算机Radio Shack TRS-80 in a classroomComputers for Everybody
个人计算机Robotron Z9001Send in the Clones
个人计算机Roots of MicrosoftSoftware: Putting PCs to Work
个人计算机Scelbi-8BWhat Was The First PC?
个人计算机Sinclair QL microcomputerComputers for Everybody
个人计算机Sinclair ZX Spectrum MicrocomputerComputers for Everybody
个人计算机Sinclair ZX80Computers for Everybody
个人计算机Sinclair ZX81Computers for Everybody
个人计算机Smaky6 MicrocomputerComputers for Everybody
个人计算机Software Arts founders Bob Frankston and Dan BricklinSoftware: Putting PCs to Work
个人计算机Sol Terminal ComputerDoing It Yourself
个人计算机Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak with Apple-1 computerThe Homebrew Computer Club
个人计算机Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak with the Apple-1 computerThe Apple II
个人计算机Steve Wozniak: The Homebrew Computer Club and the Apple IThe Homebrew Computer Club
个人计算机SWTPC 6800Doing It Yourself
个人计算机Thomson TO7 micro computerComputers for Everybody
个人计算机TRS-80 Personal ComputerComputers for Everybody
个人计算机Turbo personal computerSend in the Clones
个人计算机TVT-1 TV Typewriter prototypeDoing It Yourself
个人计算机VisiCalc softwareSoftware: Putting PCs to Work
个人计算机Windows 1.0 ScreenshotSaying it With Pictures
个人计算机Windows 3.1 screenshotSaying it With Pictures
个人计算机Windows 95 screenshotSaying it With Pictures
个人计算机Windows 95 t-shirtPromoting PCs
个人计算机Winners of The Computer Museum’s Early Model Personal Computer ContestWhat Was The First PC?
个人计算机WordStar Version 1.0What Was The First PC?
个人计算机Zenith buttonPromoting PCs
个人计算机“Introducing Apple II” adThe Apple II
移动计算Alan KayPortable Computers
移动计算Apple Newton, MacWorld coverThe Pen is Mightier than the Keyboard?
移动计算Autonetics Recomp advertisementPortable Computers
移动计算BEHEMOTH (Big Electronic Human Energized Machine, Only Too Heavy) recumbent bicycleAll Shapes, Sizes, and Places
移动计算BellSouth Simon screenPhones Get Smart
移动计算Betty Crocker cookbookHandhelds & Tablets
移动计算BlackBerry 5810 GSM wireless devicePhones Get Smart
移动计算Brother word processorThe First Wave of Portables
移动计算Busicom Handy LE-120A calculatorHandhelds & Tablets
移动计算Business woman with mobile phoneAll Shapes, Sizes, and Places
移动计算Buying a soda with an i-mode phoneInternet in Your Pocket
移动计算Cardboard GRiDpad Convertible prototypeThe Pen is Mightier than the Keyboard?
移动计算Casio ZoomerThe PalmPilot
移动计算Children using the proposed Dynabook (based on Alan Kay drawing)Portable Computers
移动计算Compact Computer 40Handhelds & Tablets
移动计算Compaq IPAQ 3650Handhelds Branch Out
移动计算Compaq Portable 286Making Computers Mobile
移动计算CQ-1 calculatorHandhelds & Tablets
移动计算DataMax Sport SCUBA diving computerAll Shapes, Sizes, and Places
移动计算Doonesbury comic strip on NewtonThe Pen is Mightier than the Keyboard?
移动计算Early one line displayInterfaces to Go
移动计算Electronic Diary patentHandhelds & Tablets
移动计算EO Personal Communicator 440The Pen is Mightier than the Keyboard?
移动计算Ericcson Ranger Wireless SeriesMaking Computers Mobile
移动计算Ericsson Ericall PagerConnected!
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移动计算Fatal train wreckInternet in Your Pocket
移动计算Finger interfaceInterfaces to Go
移动计算Gavilan advertisementLaptops Emerge
移动计算Gavilan mobile computerLaptops Emerge
移动计算GRiD advertisementLaptops Emerge
移动计算GRiD Compass laptopLaptops Emerge
移动计算GridPad being used for inventory controlInterfaces to Go
移动计算GRiDPad tablet computerThe Pen is Mightier than the Keyboard?
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移动计算Honeywell mobile computing conceptPortable Computers
移动计算HP 95LX, Palmtop ComputerHandhelds & Tablets
移动计算HP Jornada 928 digital assistantHandhelds Branch Out
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移动计算IBM 360 (1965), IBM PC (1982), and a PalmPilot (1996)Interfaces to Go
移动计算IBM 5100 portable computerThe First Wave of Portables
移动计算IBM/BellSouth Simon Personal CommunicatorPhones Get Smart
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移动计算iXO TelecomputerPortable Computers
移动计算Jeff Hawkins: The VisorPhone InterfacePhones Get Smart
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移动计算LC-836 Memo Note 30Handhelds & Tablets
移动计算LK-3000 Handheld with program cartridgesHandhelds & Tablets
移动计算Macintosh PortableLaptops Emerge
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移动计算Martin Riddiford: The Psion Organiser II InterfaceHandhelds & Tablets
移动计算MCM/70 microcomputerThe First Wave of Portables
移动计算Mobile telephony for the fewConnected!
移动计算Model for keyboard-based PalmPilotThe PalmPilot
移动计算Model of the Dynabook “dynamic book” (replica by Alan Kay)Portable Computers
移动计算Model of U.S. Army MOBIDIC Mobile Digital ComputerPortable Computers
移动计算Motorola MC9500 extreme cold drop testInterfaces to Go
移动计算Motorola Timeport, WAP-enabled feature phonePhones Get Smart
移动计算MP3 equipped “cyber” clothingAll Shapes, Sizes, and Places
移动计算Newton MessagePadThe Pen is Mightier than the Keyboard?
移动计算Nils Rydbeck: The R380 InterfacePhones Get Smart
移动计算Nokia 9000 CommunicatorPhones Get Smart
移动计算Nokia 9000 Communicator brochurePhones Get Smart
移动计算NuvoMedia Rocket e-BookThe Pen is Mightier than the Keyboard?
移动计算Oceanic Datamax diving computer advertisementAll Shapes, Sizes, and Places
移动计算OMNITEC portable terminal advertisementPortable Computers
移动计算Original iPhoneInternet in Your Pocket
移动计算Osborne 1The First Wave of Portables
移动计算Osborne 1 brochureThe First Wave of Portables
移动计算Packaging for “PalmConnect”The PalmPilot
移动计算Palm Computing leadersThe PalmPilot
移动计算Palm VIINetworked Handhelds
移动计算Palm VIINetworked Handhelds
移动计算PalmPilotThe PalmPilot
移动计算PalmPilot advertisementThe PalmPilot
移动计算PalmPilot handheld computerThe PalmPilot
移动计算PalmPilot prototypeThe PalmPilot
移动计算PalmPilot wooden modelThe PalmPilot
移动计算Paris Hilton posing with decorated phoneInternet in Your Pocket
移动计算PF-8000 handheld computerHandhelds & Tablets
移动计算Poqet PC subnotebookLaptops Emerge
移动计算Portable Companion magazine coverThe First Wave of Portables
移动计算Portable Computers, 1983 Byte magazine coverMaking Computers Mobile
移动计算PowerBook 140Laptops Emerge
移动计算PowerBook advertisementLaptops Emerge
移动计算PowerBook Duo laptop with dockLaptops Emerge
移动计算Psion design sketchHandhelds Branch Out
移动计算Psion OrganiserHandhelds & Tablets
移动计算Psion Series 3 OrganizerHandhelds Branch Out
移动计算Psion Series 5 Organizer advertisementHandhelds Branch Out
移动计算Psion Workabout prototypeThe Pen is Mightier than the Keyboard?
移动计算Pulse SmartpenThe Pen is Mightier than the Keyboard?
移动计算Quasar Hand-Held Computer advertisementHandhelds & Tablets
移动计算Radio Shack TRS-80 Model 100The First Wave of Portables
移动计算RIM Interactive Pager 950Networked Handhelds
移动计算RL-H1000 Hand-Held ComputerHandhelds & Tablets
移动计算Scout II All-Terrain SubnotebookInterfaces to Go
移动计算Scrib PortableThe First Wave of Portables
移动计算Silent 700 portable terminalMaking Computers Mobile
移动计算Simplified alphabet for “Palm Graffiti”The PalmPilot
移动计算Sony Magic LinkNetworked Handhelds
移动计算Sony PalmTop PTC-300Handhelds Branch Out
移动计算Sony TypecorderThe First Wave of Portables
移动计算Steve RobertsAll Shapes, Sizes, and Places
移动计算Suunto 51-N3 Wristop Computer Watch instructionsAll Shapes, Sizes, and Places
移动计算T-shirt with original Palm logoThe PalmPilot
移动计算The Story of Palm: Donna Dubinsky: Just Have to Ship the ProductThe PalmPilot
移动计算The Story of Palm: Ed Colligan: One ButtonThe PalmPilot
移动计算The Story of Palm: Jeff HawkinsThe PalmPilot
移动计算ThinkPad 701 with butterfly keyboardLaptops Emerge
移动计算Thumb keyboardInterfaces to Go
移动计算Titanic radio roomConnected!
移动计算TomTom Go GPS car navigation systemAll Shapes, Sizes, and Places
移动计算Touch & Tell educational gameHandhelds & Tablets
移动计算Treo 180 smartphonePhones Get Smart
移动计算TRS-80 Model 100 advertisementThe First Wave of Portables
移动计算UPS DIAD II (Delivery Information Acquisition Device)The Pen is Mightier than the Keyboard?
移动计算Walkie Talkies: local connectionConnected!
移动计算Wireless “Communicator” from “Star Trek”Connected!
移动计算Wooden Handspring Visor prototypePhones Get Smart
移动计算Wooden ship’s traverse boardAll Shapes, Sizes, and Places
移动计算Xerox NotetakerThe First Wave of Portables
移动计算Zaurus PI-3000Handhelds Branch Out
移动计算Zoomer advertisementThe PalmPilot
网络ADS multiplexers advertisementConnecting Over Phone Lines
网络AGS routerInventing the Internet
网络Airport Base StationLocal Networks in the Internet Age
网络Al Gore, Jr.The Internet Comes From Behind
网络ALOHAnet: wireless data pioneerConnections: Local Networks
网络Alto II Ethernet printed circuit boardConnections: Local Networks
网络AMP Coaxial Active Tap kitConnections: Local Networks
网络AMP Ethernet boring toolConnections: Local Networks
网络Anderson Jacobson Model ADC-300 modemConnecting Over Phone Lines
网络Apple USB modemConnecting Over Phone Lines
网络ARCNET cableConnections: Local Networks
网络BBN C/30 Communications ProcessorsInventing the Internet
网络BBN’s IMP and Network Operations Center teamNetworking Takes Off
网络BITNET (Because It’s There Network) magazineThe Internet Comes From Behind
网络CAT 5 Ethernet cable with RJ45 connectorLocal Networks in the Internet Age
网络Cisco T-shirtProtocol Wars
网络Composite sketch of Ethernet showing "ETHER!"Connections: Local Networks
网络Dartmouth Time-sharing system teleprinterMany People, One System
网络Dave Boggs: Office NetworksConnections: Local Networks
网络Decnet message switching system labelProtocol Wars
网络Digital business phone system, RolmConnections: Local Networks
网络Early modem from AT&TConnecting Over Phone Lines
网络EIN (European Informatics Network)Inventing the Internet
网络Ginny Strazisar, BBNInventing the Internet
网络IBM 3174 Systems Network Architecture (SNA) controllerProtocol Wars
网络IBM Token Ring diagramConnections: Local Networks
网络Interface Message Processor (IMP)Networking Takes Off
网络International Telecommunication Union publicationsProtocol Wars
网络Internetworking router at Xerox PARCInventing the Internet
网络J.C. LickliderConnections: Global Networks
网络L.M. Ericsson printing telegraphThe Victorian “Internet”
网络Larry Roberts, ARPANET architectNetworking Takes Off
网络Laying underwater cableThe Victorian “Internet”
网络LocalTalk local area networking cableConnections: Local Networks
网络Louis PouzinInventing the Internet
网络ModemConnecting Over Phone Lines
网络Morse code chartThe Victorian “Internet”
网络Nestar Cluster System advertisementNetwork Operating Systems
网络NetWare Lan Operating System Software boxNetwork Operating Systems
网络Network Information Center (NIC)Networking Takes Off
网络Novell buttonNetwork Operating Systems
网络NPL switch boxNetworking Takes Off
网络NSFNET buttonThe Internet Comes From Behind
网络NSFNET mapThe Internet Comes From Behind
网络Original CarterfoneConnecting Over Phone Lines
网络Robert Metcalfe and David BoggsConnections: Local Networks
网络Robert Metcalfe: The Naming of the EthernetConnections: Local Networks
网络Robert T. MorrisThe Internet Comes From Behind
网络Robert Taylor, ARPA computing directorNetworking Takes Off
网络Roger Scantlebury: Intro to the Protocol WarsProtocol Wars
网络SAGE (Semi Automatic Ground Environment)Many People, One System
网络SAGE Air Defense System: Network pioneerMany People, One System
网络Section of first Trans-Atlantic telegraph cableThe Victorian “Internet”
网络SRI van modelInventing the Internet
网络T1 channel bankConnecting Over Phone Lines
网络Telecommunications systems mapConnecting Over Phone Lines
网络Telegraph operatorThe Victorian “Internet”
网络Telegraph sender key and receiver/sounderThe Victorian “Internet”
网络Telephone receiverThe Victorian “Internet”
网络Telephone switching officeConnecting Over Phone Lines
网络Teletype Model 28 typing unit and printerConnecting Over Phone Lines
网络The Shockwave Rider, by John BrunnerThe Internet Comes From Behind
网络The Xerox AltoConnections: Local Networks
网络Timesharing in the classroomMany People, One System
网络Token Ring patch cableConnections: Local Networks
网络UCLA Network Measurement Center (NMC)Networking Takes Off
网络Universal 3-A stock tickerThe Victorian “Internet”
网络Vint Cerf: The Road to the InternetThe Internet Comes From Behind
网络Vinton Cerf and Robert KahnInventing the Internet
网络What's the Difference Between the Internet and the Web?What’s the Difference Between the Internet and the Web?
网络Wheatstone automatic transmitterThe Victorian “Internet”
网络World telegraph mapThe Victorian “Internet”
网络Xerox PARC's Commercial for the Ethernet Office System of the FutureConnections: Local Networks
Web"World Brain," H.G. WellsNavigating Information
Web*7 (pronounced "star seven") prototypeServers: Hidden Engines of the Web
Web1-800-FlowersElectronic Commerce
WebAccount statement, key early employee of firm with record IPOThe Dot Com Boom…and Bust
WebAdvertisement on O’Reilly’s Global Network Navigator (GNN)Electronic Commerce
WebAlta Vista 5 year anniversary paperweightThe Dot Com Boom…and Bust
WebAmazon.com, online booksellerDot Com Winners & Losers
WebAndries "Andy" van DamNavigating Information with Computers
WebAsk Jeeves costumeThe Dot Com Boom…and Bust
WebAuction Web (later eBay)Electronic Commerce
WebBill Gates, Microsoft co-founderBrowser Wars
WebBirth of the World Wide WebInventing the Web
WebBlip.tv television websiteThe Medium of All Mediums
WebBloggerUsers As Contributors
WebBn.comThe Dot Com Boom…and Bust
WebBrandEra.com flying diskThe Dot Com Boom…and Bust
WebCERN Virtual LibrarySearch
WebChamber's Encyclopedia: A Dictionary of Universal Knowledge for the People - Volume VNavigating Information
WebCommerceNet consortium bannerElectronic Commerce
WebCommunity Memory MessagesCommunicating Through Computers
WebCommunity Memory terminalCommunicating Through Computers
WebCommunity Memory terminal at Leopold’s Records, Berkeley, CaliforniaCommunicating Through Computers
WebCommunity noseCommunicating Through Computers
WebCompuserveWalled Gardens
WebComputer Lib : You Can and Must Understand Computers Now / Dream Machines : New Freedoms Through Computer Screens - A Minority ReportNavigating Information with Computers
WebCybercafe in BostonGetting Online
WebDancing Baby animation, 1996Users As Contributors
WebDEC Alta Vista search engineSearch
WebDiderot’s 18th century encyclopedia pageNavigating Information
WebDot Com Boom and BustThe Dot Com Boom…and Bust
WebDouglas EngelbartNavigating Information with Computers
WebEarly Web BrowsersBrowsers: Windows on the Web
WebeHow.com mugThe Dot Com Boom…and Bust
WebEmail from Greg Noel to Elizabeth "Jake" FeinlerCommunicating Through Computers
WebEric BinaBrowsers: Windows on the Web
WebFacebookUsers As Contributors
WebFake Bank of Montreal siteDot Com Winners & Losers
WebFirst International World-Wide Web Conference t-shirtSurfing the Web in the Early 1990s
WebFirst spam on the ARPANETElectronic Commerce
WebFlickrUsers As Contributors
WebFred Minitel postcardEurope and the First Mass-Market “Webs”
WebFVC.COM clockThe Dot Com Boom…and Bust
WebGNN (Global Network Navigator), templateSurfing the Web in the Early 1990s
WebGoing OnlineWalled Gardens
WebGoogle guide mugSearch
WebGoogle search engineSearch
WebGoogle server assemblyServers: Hidden Engines of the Web
WebGopher Cruisin' The Internet t-shirtWhy Did the Web Win?
WebGopher siteWhy Did the Web Win?
WebGoTo.com: search based advertisingSearch
WebGrolier Prehistoria CD-ROMNavigating Information with Computers
WebGuru.com mugThe Dot Com Boom…and Bust
WebHampster Dance screenshot, 1997Users As Contributors
WebHotseat, WiredElectronic Commerce
WebHow to Make a Fortune on the Information Superhighway : Everyone's Guerrilla Guide to Marketing on the Internet and Other On-Line ServicesElectronic Commerce
WebHyper-gWalled Gardens
WebHyperCardNavigating Information with Computers
WebHypertext Editing System (HES)Navigating Information with Computers
WebHyperwave mugThe Web’s Competitors
WebInterlottoElectronic Commerce
WebInternet center in Veerampattinam, IndiaGetting Online
WebInternet in a Box 2.0Surfing the Web in the Early 1990s
WebInternet Telecom Observer experimental multimedia magazineThe Medium of All Mediums
WebJapanese women using mobile devices on a trainGetting Online
WebJava pinServers: Hidden Engines of the Web
WebJean-François GroffInventing the Web
WebJim ClarkBrowser Wars
WebJohn Kohler: Building on Mosaic's User BaseBrowser Wars
WebJoseph Hardin and Larry SmarrBrowsers: Windows on the Web
WebKevin Hughes: The White House's First WebsiteSurfing the Web in the Early 1990s
WebLarry Page and Sergey BrinSearch
WebLee Felsenstein: The First Community MemoryCommunicating Through Computers
WebLexis/Nexis buttonSpecialized Systems for Specialized Users
WebLexisNexisWalled Gardens
WebLexisNexis screenshotSpecialized Systems for Specialized Users
WebLibrary card file drawerNavigating Information
WebLucasfilm Habitat online communityCommunicating Through Computers
WebManual for "Enquire" by Tim Berners-LeeInventing the Web
WebMapquestElectronic Commerce
WebMarc AndreessenBrowsers: Windows on the Web
WebMemex conceptual sketchNavigating Information
WebMesopotamian medical tablet replicaNavigating Information
WebMicrocosm for Windows 3.0Navigating Information with Computers
WebMicrofilmNavigating Information
WebMicrosoft Internet Explorer softwareBrowser Wars
WebMinitelEurope and the First Mass-Market “Webs”
WebMinitel screenshotWalled Gardens
WebMinitel userEurope and the First Mass-Market “Webs”
WebMonopoly game, .com EditionThe Dot Com Boom…and Bust
WebMosaic Netscape Communications polo shirtBrowser Wars
WebMSN (Microsoft Network)Why Did the Web Win?
WebMupid bumper stickerEurope and the First Mass-Market “Webs”
WebMUPID II C2A2 Vtx computerEurope and the First Mass-Market “Webs”
WebMyspaceUsers As Contributors
WebNapster.com music-sharing serviceUsers As Contributors
WebNavigating Knowledge: Hypertext PioneersNavigating Information with Computers
WebNCSA Mosaic "What's New" pageBrowsers: Windows on the Web
WebNetflixThe Dot Com Boom…and Bust
WebNetscape IPO paperweightThe Dot Com Boom…and Bust
WebNetscape IPO prospectusBrowser Wars
WebNetscape NavigatorBrowser Wars
WebNew York Public Library Reading RoomSearch
WebNeXT ComputerInventing the Web
WebNoogler propellor hatSearch
WebNorth American Videotex conference announcementEurope and the First Mass-Market “Webs”
WebO'Reilly Media "Web 2.0" conference programUsers As Contributors
WeboNLine System (NLS) keyset and mouseNavigating Information with Computers
WebPalais Mondial (World Palace), later MundaneumNavigating Information
WebPaul Otlet at deskNavigating Information
WebPets.com sock puppetDot Com Winners & Losers
WebPets.com websiteDot Com Winners & Losers
WebPlanet OasisElectronic Commerce
WebPlatoWalled Gardens
WebPLATO Notes screenshotCommunicating Through Computers
WebPortable.com propellerThe Dot Com Boom…and Bust
WebPrestel brochureEurope and the First Mass-Market “Webs”
Webquote.comThe Dot Com Boom…and Bust
WebRay Tomlinson: The Early Days of EmailCommunicating Through Computers
WebRobert CailliauInventing the Web
WebSailors using laptop computersGetting Online
WebSan Francisco Magazine, the Greed IssueThe Dot Com Boom…and Bust
WebSearching for Profit: Gary Chevsky: Banners and Pop-UpsSearch
WebSex.comElectronic Commerce
WebSouthwest.comThe Dot Com Boom…and Bust
WebSpam advertisementElectronic Commerce
WebTelegram to Ringling BrothersElectronic Commerce
WebTelegraph "spam"Electronic Commerce
WebTeletextWalled Gardens
WebTelevision remoteEurope and the First Mass-Market “Webs”
WebTheodor Holm ("Ted") NelsonNavigating Information with Computers
WebTim Berners-LeeInventing the Web
WebTypical server roomServers: Hidden Engines of the Web
WebUbiq II terminalSpecialized Systems for Specialized Users
WebUsenetSpecialized Systems for Specialized Users
WebVannevar BushNavigating Information
WebViola screenshotThe Web’s Competitors
WebWebvan.com ice cream scoopDot Com Winners & Losers
WebWells FargoElectronic Commerce
WebWhite House screenshotWhy Did the Web Win?
WebWikipediaUsers As Contributors
WebWorld Wide Web ConsortiumWhy Did the Web Win?
WebWorldWideWeb browser-editorInventing the Web
WebYouTubeUsers As Contributors

方法与来源

资料核对日为 2026 年 10 月 29 日。在线索引以 Revolution Topics 页列出的 302 个导航链接对应页面为采集边界,其中包含 20 个主题入口。采集返回成功的页面数为 302,未成功页面数为 0。程序读取页面内的公开记录链接,按链接末尾记录编号去重,得到 2,080 条记录。

这项采集没有把馆藏数据库全部藏品、其他特展与实时展出状态合并为同一清单。同一实物存在多张照片与文献记录。在线页面也保留了已经结束的展览。当前主展的 19 个展厅与在线展览的 20 个主题采用不同的分组,不直接互相换算。

59 个详解专题包括官方导览的 31 项和 28 个补充专题。正文根据馆方说明、原始论文、协议文件及相关机构资料改写。原理示意和教学例子用于解释机制,不是历史设备的等比例结构图。角色分类、阅读路径和跨专题联系属于本文分析。

31 幅照片采用已核对的较高分辨率来源,并保留摄影者、来源与许可。安提基特拉机械与 Brown Box 的图注明确标为参考图;鼠标照片为原型复制品,PalmPilot 照片为开发原型。图像经过缩小与格式转换,图片尺寸不超过来源图像的实际尺寸。点按照片可以放大,放大界面支持 100% 像素查看。

Make Software 的旧页面包含其成文时期的用户量、营收和市场数据。本页不将这些旧统计作为 2026 年现状。Babbage 大型差分机特展的结束时间,也与其技术设计年代分别处理。

  1. CHM:2017 年官方导览公告
  2. CHM:Revolution
  3. CHM:Revolution Topics
  4. computerhistory.org/exhibits/make-software/
  5. Computer Restorations
  6. CHM:Chatbots Decoded
  7. CHM:Extended Reality
  8. CHM:Exhibits
  9. The Versatile, Venerable Abacus
  10. A Classical Wonder: The Antikythera Mechanism
  11. CHM:The Revolutionary Babbage Engine
  12. THE BABBAGE DIFFERENCE ENGINE NO. 2
  13. A. M. Turing:On Computable Numbers(论文副本,Carnegie Mellon University)
  14. A. M. Turing:On Computable Numbers
  15. How Do Digital Computers “Think”?
  16. Making Sense of the Census: Hollerith’s Punched Card Solution
  17. Nordsieck’s Differential Analyzer
  18. The Road to Nordsieck’s Machine
  19. ENIAC
  20. The Minds Behind ENIAC
  21. The Stored Program
  22. Computers | Timeline of Computer History | Computer History Museum
  23. UNIVAC
  24. UNIVAC Predicts an Eisenhower Win!
  25. Higher Level Languages
  26. History of FORTRAN and FORTRAN II
  27. The IBM 1401 Demo Lab and Restoration Project Computer History Museum
  28. Inventing the Transistor
  29. Switching to Silicon
  30. The Integrated Circuit
  31. Tortoise of Transistors Wins the Race
  32. The Smart IC: Microprocessors
  33. Intel's Microprocessor
  34. Moore's Law
  35. The Evolution of Silicon Valley
  36. The Norden Bombsight
  37. A SAGE Defense
  38. How Big Was SAGE?
  39. Aiming for the Moon
  40. Innovative Ideas & Stepping Stones Part I
  41. Magnetic Core Memory
  42. MOS DRAMs Replace Magnetic Core Arrays
  43. The First Disk Drive: RAMAC 350
  44. Magnetic Hard Disks
  45. IBM System/360
  46. Inside System/360
  47. The Virtues of Sharing
  48. DEC’s Minis Get Bigger
  49. A Relational Model of Data for Large Shared Data Banks
  50. System R: Relational approach to database management
  51. Databases
  52. CHM:PDP-1 Restoration Project
  53. DEC’s Blockbuster: The PDP-8
  54. The Cray-1 Supercomputer
  55. The Mouse
  56. Xerox Alto
  57. Connections: Local Networks
  58. Bytes for Bites: The Kitchen Computer
  59. Doing It Yourself
  60. The Homebrew Computer Club
  61. The Apple II
  62. Software: Putting PCs to Work
  63. The IBM PC
  64. Shakey
  65. Games On Your TV?
  66. CHM:Brown Box replica 藏品说明
  67. Pong
  68. The Utah Teapot
  69. Computers Make Movies
  70. CHM:Pixar image computer 藏品说明
  71. ImageNet Classification with Deep Convolutional Neural Networks
  72. Silicon Graphics
  73. Vaswani 等:Attention Is All You Need
  74. Connections: Global Networks
  75. Inventing the Internet
  76. Local Networks in the Internet Age
  77. RFC 791 : STD 5 : Internet Protocol
  78. RFC 793 : Transmission Control Protocol
  79. Europe and the First Mass-Market “Webs”
  80. Why Did the Web Win?
  81. Inventing the Web
  82. Browsers: Windows on the Web
  83. Search
  84. Servers: Hidden Engines of the Web
  85. Announcing Amazon Elastic Compute Cloud (Amazon EC2) - beta
  86. Timesharing as a Business
  87. All Shapes, Sizes, and Places
  88. CHM:BEHEMOTH 藏品说明
  89. The PalmPilot
  90. Phones Get Smart
  91. Internet in Your Pocket
  92. Computer History Museum Announces “Extended Reality: Visions of the Future” Exhibit
  93. CHM Make Software:MP3
  94. CHM Make Software:Photoshop
  95. CHM Make Software:MRI
  96. CHM Make Software:Car Crash Simulation
  97. CHM Make Software:Wikipedia
  98. CHM Make Software:Texting
  99. CHM Make Software:World of Warcraft

索引中的每条记录另有对应馆方链接。图片许可及摄影者列在各图图注中,许可分别适用于对应照片。

展品图片

展品照片放大视图